A method of determining proof stress includes: calculating a needed load needed to completely crush a deformable impact absorption body of a barrier in a range that comes into contact with a rear bumper reinforcement, based on a load needed to completely crush the entire front surface of the impact absorption body, an area of the entire front surface of the impact absorption body, and an area of the front surface of the impact absorption body, which comes into contact with the rear bumper reinforcement; calculating a maximum bending moment acting on the rear bumper reinforcement in a case where the needed load is input; and determining proof stress of a pair of side members to be equal to or greater than the needed load and determining proof stress of the rear bumper reinforcement to be equal to or greater than the maximum bending moment.

A method of determining proof stress includes: calculating a needed load needed to completely crush a deformable impact absorption body of a barrier in a range that comes into contact with a rear bumper reinforcement, based on a load needed to completely crush the entire front surface of the impact absorption body, an area of the entire front surface of the impact absorption body, and an area of the front surface of the impact absorption body, which comes into contact with the rear bumper reinforcement; calculating a maximum bending moment acting on the rear bumper reinforcement in a case where the needed load is input; and determining proof stress of a pair of side members to be equal to or greater than the needed load and determining proof stress of the rear bumper reinforcement to be equal to or greater than the maximum bending moment.

An internal-load calculation apparatus includes a memory and a calculator. The memory stores the results of a preliminary analysis of an internal load exerted on a member of interest in a sound condition. The calculator calculates, on the basis of the distribution of an internal load exerted on the member of interest upon the application of an external load to an element of interest and the results of the preliminary analysis stored in the memory, the distribution of an internal load exerted on the member of interest upon the occurrence of damage on the element of interest. The element of interest corresponds to at least one of a plurality of elements of the member of interest.

In a force sensor, a cylindrical movable body can be moved with respect to a cylindrical main body. A strain body is fixed to the main body and the movable body, and can be deformed in accordance with the movement of the movable body. Strain sensors are provided on the strain body. At least three circular openings are provided in the circumferential surface of the movable body at equal intervals. Stoppers are respectively arranged inside the openings, and each of which includes a first side surface having a first outer diameter smaller than an inner diameter of the opening, and a second side surface having a second outer diameter smaller than the first outer diameter. Fixing members fix the stoppers to the main body.

In a force sensor, a cylindrical movable body can be moved with respect to a cylindrical main body. A strain body is fixed to the main body and the movable body, and can be deformed in accordance with the movement of the movable body. Strain sensors are provided on the strain body. At least three circular openings are provided in the circumferential surface of the movable body at equal intervals. Stoppers are respectively arranged inside the openings, and each of which includes a first side surface having a first outer diameter smaller than an inner diameter of the opening, and a second side surface having a second outer diameter smaller than the first outer diameter. Fixing members fix the stoppers to the main body.

Systems, apparatus and methods are provided for measuring moving vehicle information. Moving vehicle information may be measured by a sensor configured to respond to one or more wheels of the moving vehicle, where one or more of the wheels change the characteristic impedance of the sensor at the wheel's contact location. An electrical time domain reflectometry signal processing system which is capable of measuring the change in the impedance of the sensor and converting the impedance change to a signal may be connected operatively to the sensor. A data-processing system receives the signal and extracts the moving vehicle information therefrom.

Systems, apparatus and methods are provided for measuring moving vehicle information. Moving vehicle information may be measured by a sensor configured to respond to one or more wheels of the moving vehicle, where one or more of the wheels change the characteristic impedance of the sensor at the wheel's contact location. An electrical time domain reflectometry signal processing system which is capable of measuring the change in the impedance of the sensor and converting the impedance change to a signal may be connected operatively to the sensor. A data-processing system receives the signal and extracts the moving vehicle information therefrom.

An impact sensing laminate 2 has a first surface 211 on which an impact force acts; a second surface 222 brought in contact with a protection object OBJ; an impact absorption layer 21 and a first pressure-sensitive layer 22. When a direction heading for the second surface from the first surface is defined as a first direction, the first pressure-sensitive layer is in the first direction from the impact absorption layer. The first pressure-sensitive layer is a layer of sensing a first impact force as the impact force to have been attenuated by the impact absorption layer.

An impact sensing laminate 2 has a first surface 211 on which an impact force acts; a second surface 222 brought in contact with a protection object OBJ; an impact absorption layer 21 and a first pressure-sensitive layer 22. When a direction heading for the second surface from the first surface is defined as a first direction, the first pressure-sensitive layer is in the first direction from the impact absorption layer. The first pressure-sensitive layer is a layer of sensing a first impact force as the impact force to have been attenuated by the impact absorption layer.

A semiconductor device includes a strain gauge on a substrate, the strain gauge configured to measure a stress of the substrate; and a temperature sensor disposed within the substrate, the temperature sensor being decoupled from the stress of the substrate.