Circuitry for measuring a characteristic of an electrochemical cell, the electrochemical cell comprising at least one working electrode and a counter electrode, the circuitry comprising: driver circuitry configured to apply a working bias voltage to the at least one working electrode and a counter bias voltage at the counter electrode to produce a first voltage bias between the at least one working electrode and the counter electrode; control circuitry configured to adjust the first voltage bias over a first bias range by varying the working bias voltage and the counter bias voltage.

Certain aspects of the technology disclosed herein include an apparatus and method for programming a crystal lattice structure of a nanoparticle. A particle programming apparatus can include an input channel connected a particle sampling system. The particle sampling system can direct freshly milled nanoparticles to the particle programming apparatus if the nanoparticles are determined to be below a threshold size. The particle programming apparatus can include one or more programming devices configured to alter a crystal lattice of the received nanoparticles including an ultrasonic sound generator, a magnetic pulse generator, and a voltage generator. The one or more programming devices applies any of a sound, magnetic pulse, and voltage to the received nanoparticles within a time threshold of receiving the nanoparticles from the mill core.

A sensor for measuring thermal conductivity includes an insulator, a test material over the insulator, a conductor over the test material, and a gas within an open volume adjacent the test material and the conductor. An electrical source is configured to provide an alternating current through the conductor to heat the test material. Leads are connected to the conductor and configured to connect to a voltmeter. A method of measuring thermal conductivity includes disposing the sensor in a reactor core in which a nuclear fuel undergoes irradiation and radioactive decay. An alternating current is provided from the electrical source through the conductor to heat the test material. A voltage is measured as a function of time at the leads connected to the conductor. A thermal conductivity of the test material is calculated based on the voltage measured as a function of time. Methods of forming a sensor are also disclosed.

A sodium hypochlorite generator includes a sodium hypochlorite generation device disposed in a pre-buried wall hole formed in a wall, and a water salinity detection device electrically connected to the sodium hypochlorite generation device. A first probe and a second probe disposed on a wireless power receiving device detect a voltage signal therebetween, and outputs the voltage signal into a detection box of the water salinity detection device through a signal line, a drive module obtains the water salinity according to the voltage signal, and the water salinity is displayed by a display panel, such that the change of the concentration of a sodium chloride solution during reaction can be observed in real time to determine the extent of the electrolytic reaction, the time of the electrolytic reaction can be controlled easily, and time and energy costs are saved.

A method for time constant estimation includes generating a bound for a R=1/g of the inverse solution; for any R picked within the bound for R, extracting the voltage dependence of the time constant; and extracting the roots of a tree like structure. A method to quantify a time constant of each gate of a Hodgkin Huxley formalism with activating and inactivating gates with currents recorded with a T-step and G-step protocols, and methods to quantify a time constant of each gate of a Hodgkin Huxley formalism with activating and inactivating gates are also described.

A 3D object is additively formed via arranging non-conductive material relative to a receiving surface. During additive formation of the 3D object, a conductive channel is formed as part of the 3D object. In some instances, non-destructive fracture sensing is performed via measurement of an electrical parameter of the conductive channel.

In one embodiment, non-contact assessment of reinforced concrete is performed by positioning a reference electrode in close proximity to a surface of the concrete without contacting the electrode to the surface, vibrating the electrode with a vibration generator, and measuring the electrical potential difference between the electrode and the concrete surface, the potential difference being indicative of the condition of a portion of a reinforcement member positioned below the concrete surface at the location of the electrode.

The invention relates to carbon dioxide sensing compounds. In particular, the present invention relates to said sensing compounds comprising a phathalocyanine or a metal phthalocyanine. Furthermore, the invention relates to the tuning sensitivity of the phathalocyanine or the metal phthalocyanine by incorporation of amine groups and spacers. The sensing layers can be integrated on various transducers like a chemiresistor, a capacitor, a field effect transistor (FET), an optical-based sensor, or a mass-based sensor.

Provided is a pulse operating method for an FET-type sensor having a horizontal floating electrode. The pulse operating method for an FET-type sensor includes a reading preparation step of applying one or more pre-bias voltage pulses (V.sub.pre) to the control electrode and a reading step of applying one or more read-bias voltage pulses (V.sub.rCG) to the control electrode and applying a voltage pulse (V.sub.rDs) synchronized with the read-bias voltage pulse between a drain and a source. The reactivity and the recovery time can be improved according to the width or the magnitude of the pre-bias voltage pulse applied to the input terminal of the control electrode, and the oxidizing gas and the reducing gas can be distinguished. In addition, since current flows to the FET-type sensor only in the read-biasing period, power consumption can be greatly reduced.

A system and method for monitoring environmental state that includes a structure element with a base substrate and at least one reflector element integrated to the base substrate, wherein the reflector element is physically configured with at least one response signature that is discretely expressed based on an substance induced environmental condition of the reflector element; and a remote monitor device comprising a transmitter and receiver unit and a controller, wherein the monitor device is configured to interrogate the structure element; detect a response signature corresponding to at least the one reflector element; and map the response signature to a corresponding substance induced environmental condition.