A porous carbon material includes a hierarchical porous structure including a primary microporous structure and at least one of a secondary mesoporous structure and a secondary macroporous structure. The porous carbon material is formed by combining a halogenated-hydrocarbon, an aprotic hydrocarbon solvent, and a reductant to initiate a reaction that forms intermediate particles having a microporous framework; and subjecting the intermediate particles to a heat treatment at a heat treatment temperature ranging from about 300° C. to less than 1,500° C. for a heat treatment time period ranging from about 20 minutes to about 10 hours to thereby form the porous carbon material. The aprotic hydrocarbon solvent is selected from the group consisting of toluene, hexane, cyclohexane, and combinations thereof.

Provided is a silyl ether-containing sulfonate salt that contains an anion represented by formula (1) and a cation.

##STR00001##

(In the formula, R.sup.1 to R.sup.4 are each independently a C1-4 alkyl group. m is an integer from 1 to 3. n is an integer from 2 to 8.)

The present invention provides a high output voltage supercapacitor having a cathode including layers of phosphorene, an anode comprising zinc, and an organic-solvent-based electrolyte including zinc. The supercapacitor demonstrates a high anti-self-discharge. The organic electrolyte may include an anhydrous zinc salt, tetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate, and propylene carbonate (Et.sub.4NBF.sub.4/PC). The electrochemical stability window of Et.sub.4NBF.sub.4/PC extends beyond 2.5 V. The supercapacitor can be charged to 2.5 V and possesses high initial discharge voltage. The supercapacitor delivered 130 F g.sup.−1 even after more than 9500 cycles at a current density of 0.5 A g.sup.−1. More importantly, the supercapacitor exhibits a capacitance retention of 70.16% even after 500 hours self-discharge behavior.

The present invention provides a high output voltage supercapacitor having a cathode including layers of phosphorene, an anode comprising zinc, and an organic-solvent-based electrolyte including zinc. The supercapacitor demonstrates a high anti-self-discharge. The organic electrolyte may include an anhydrous zinc salt, tetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate, and propylene carbonate (Et.sub.4NBF.sub.4/PC). The electrochemical stability window of Et.sub.4NBF.sub.4/PC extends beyond 2.5 V. The supercapacitor can be charged to 2.5 V and possesses high initial discharge voltage. The supercapacitor delivered 130 F g.sup.−1 even after more than 9500 cycles at a current density of 0.5 A g.sup.−1. More importantly, the supercapacitor exhibits a capacitance retention of 70.16% even after 500 hours self-discharge behavior.

A carbon cloth/gallium oxynitride has a chemical formula of GaO.sub.xN.sub.y, where x=0.1-0.3 and y=0.7-0.9; and has a N/O molar ratio of 2.3 to 9. The carbon cloth/gallium oxynitride is a composite formed by loading gallium oxynitride nanoparticles on carbon cloth fibers, wherein the gallium oxynitride nanoparticles have a size range of 10 to 70 nm, and the carbon cloth/gallium oxynitride has a discharge specific capacitance of 30 to 865 mF cm.sup.−2 at current densities ranging from 0.5 to 100 mA cm.sup.−2. The working electrode is made from the carbon cloth/gallium oxynitride; and the supercapacitor is composed of the carbon cloth/gallium oxynitride working electrodes, a separator, an electrolyte, and an outer package.

A carbon cloth/gallium oxynitride has a chemical formula of GaO.sub.xN.sub.y, where x=0.1-0.3 and y=0.7-0.9; and has a N/O molar ratio of 2.3 to 9. The carbon cloth/gallium oxynitride is a composite formed by loading gallium oxynitride nanoparticles on carbon cloth fibers, wherein the gallium oxynitride nanoparticles have a size range of 10 to 70 nm, and the carbon cloth/gallium oxynitride has a discharge specific capacitance of 30 to 865 mF cm.sup.−2 at current densities ranging from 0.5 to 100 mA cm.sup.−2. The working electrode is made from the carbon cloth/gallium oxynitride; and the supercapacitor is composed of the carbon cloth/gallium oxynitride working electrodes, a separator, an electrolyte, and an outer package.

An electrolyte solution for an electrochemical device, such as a lithium secondary battery, or module. The electrolyte solution contains: a solvent that contains a fluorinated acyclic carbonate having a fluorine content of 33 to 70 mass %; at least one organosilicon compound selected from a compound represented by the formula (1): (R.sup.11).sub.n11—M.sup.11—O—SiR.sup.12R.sup.13R.sup.14 and a compound represented by the formula (2): R.sup.21R.sup.22R.sup.23—Si—F; a lithium salt (3) that contains an oxalato-complex as an anion; and a lithium salt (4) represented by the formula (4): Li.sub.zM.sup.31F.sub.xO.sub.y, where R.sup.11, M.sup.11, R.sup.12, R.sup.13, R.sup.14, R.sup.21, R.sup.22, R.sup.23 and M.sup.31 are as defined herein.

An electrolyte solution for an electrochemical device, such as a lithium secondary battery, or module. The electrolyte solution contains: a solvent that contains a fluorinated acyclic carbonate having a fluorine content of 33 to 70 mass %; at least one organosilicon compound selected from a compound represented by the formula (1): (R.sup.11).sub.n11—M.sup.11—O—SiR.sup.12R.sup.13R.sup.14 and a compound represented by the formula (2): R.sup.21R.sup.22R.sup.23—Si—F; a lithium salt (3) that contains an oxalato-complex as an anion; and a lithium salt (4) represented by the formula (4): Li.sub.zM.sup.31F.sub.xO.sub.y, where R.sup.11, M.sup.11, R.sup.12, R.sup.13, R.sup.14, R.sup.21, R.sup.22, R.sup.23 and M.sup.31 are as defined herein.

An electrochemical cell for a secondary battery, preferably for use in an electric vehicle, is provided. The cell includes a solid metallic anode, which is deposited over a suitable current collector substrate during the cell charging process. Several variations of compatible electrolyte are disclosed, along with suitable cathode materials for building the complete cell.

An electrochemical cell for a secondary battery, preferably for use in an electric vehicle, is provided. The cell includes a solid metallic anode, which is deposited over a suitable current collector substrate during the cell charging process. Several variations of compatible electrolyte are disclosed, along with suitable cathode materials for building the complete cell.