The present disclosure describes electrospinning systems and apparatuses suitable for use in high throughput industrial settings. The disclosed systems and apparatuses may include a high voltage power supply having positive and negative electrodes; one or more spinnerets that include one or more convergent-divergent nozzles, one or more turbo canals, or a combination thereof; and a collector. The systems and apparatuses may further include one or more peristaltic pumps. In some implementations, the systems and apparatuses may be designed to produce nanofibers from multiple polymer solutions simultaneously. The collector may be an adjustable collector that is composed of multiple metal sheets. The collector may alternately be a conveyor belt collector. The systems and apparatuses may optionally further include one or more of a ventilation system that reduces sparking inside the electrospinning chamber, a chamber for reducing power consumption when using an optional heater or dehumidifier, and an in-line quality control system.

A metal oxide layer comprising a modified metal oxide nanoparticle, wherein the modified metal oxide nanoparticle comprises an organic acid metal salt on the surface of a metal oxide nanoparticle, and the organic acid metal salt has Formula 1, wherein m is a whole number selected from 0-2; n is a whole number selected from 0-12; X is O or a bond; R.sup.1 for each instance is independently H, OH, alkyl or cycloalkyl; R.sup.2 for each instance is independently hydrogen or alkyl; or two instances of CR.sup.2 taken together form a double bond; and represents a metal counterion. An organic photovoltaic cell comprising the metal oxide layer can achieve improved PCE and stability.

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