A piezoelectric deionization system uses a piezoid bed made up of multiple piezoids for deionization of a working fluid containing charged particles, ions, and/or ionic complexes. The working fluid may be salt water in various embodiments. A uniaxial compressive force is applied to the piezoid bed causing a piezoelectric effect in the piezoids, resulting in a piezoelectric field generated by each particle, which attracts charged particles, ions, and/or ionic complexes contained in the working fluid. The piezoid bed is contained in a closed chamber to which the uniaxial compressive force is applied. Monocrystalline quartz particles or another suitable piezoid, natural or synthetic, may be used. A fluid is used to purge the piezoid bed of charged particles, ions, and/or ionic complexes after the piezoid bed becomes saturated through use. The working fluid may be used to purge the piezoid.

A flow-through fluid treatment system for generating a plasma discharge in a fluid includes a high-voltage electrode forming a fluid inlet into a cylindrical flow-through reactor, the fluid inlet having an inlet inner diameter, a ground electrode forming a fluid outlet out of the cylindrical flow-through reactor, the ground electrode and the high-voltage electrode disposed coaxially across a gap between the electrodes in a cylindrical flow-through reactor space, a gas inlet into the cylindrical flow-through reactor, disposed tangentially in an interior wall of the cylindrical flow-through reactor to generate a vortex gas flow within the cylindrical flow-through reactor space, thereby generating a negative gauge pressure within the fluid inlet, and a high-voltage power supply electrically connected to the high-voltage electrode for generating a plasma discharge across the gap, thereby producing plasma treated fluid.

Provided are a deionization composite electrode, a method of manufacturing the deionization composite electrode, and a deionization apparatus using the same. The deionization composite electrode includes: a porous substrate having fine pores; an ion exchange membrane that is formed by electrospraying an ion exchange solution on one surface of the porous substrate; and a conductive film that is formed on the other surface of the porous substrate.

An electrochemical separation system may be modular and may include at least a first modular unit and a second modular unit. Each modular unit may include a cell stack and a frame. The frame may include a manifold system. A flow distributor in the frame may enhance current efficiency. The flow distributor may define a labyrinth flow path for improved current efficiency.

The polarized electrode flow through capacitor comprises at least one each electrode material, with a pore volume that includes meso and micropores, with contained anionic or cationic groups. The polarized electrodes are in opposite polarity facing pairs, separated by a flow path or flow spacer. Both polarities of the particular attached ionic groups used are ionized at the working pH or composition of the particular feed solution supplied to inlet of the flow through capacitor. The contained groups cause the electrodes to be polarized so that they are selective to anions or cations. The polarized electrode flow through capacitor has better performance compared to identical flow through capacitors made from non-derivitized carbon. The capacitor electrode materials so derivitized provide this polarization function directly without need for a separate charge barrier material.

Apparatus with flow-through capacitors for the purification of a liquid, which comprises: at least one cell (2) provided with at least one flow-through capacitor (4) provided with two or more electrodes facing each other, between which a liquid to be treated is susceptible to flow; electrical power supply means (13) adapted to supply a direct supply voltage (V.sub.A); a modulation circuit (14) connected in input to the electrical power supply means (13) in order to receive the supply voltage (V.sub.A) and provided with switches (22, 22; 23, 23) actuatable to apply at least one operating voltage between the facing electrodes of each capacitor (4). In addition, the present apparatus comprises a control circuit (24) which is connected to the switches (22, 22; 23, 23) of the modulation circuit (14), and is provided with a control module with pulse width modulation (PWM), which drives the switching of the switches (22, 22; 23, 23) by power supplying the facing electrodes of each capacitor (4) by means of a pulsed voltage having average value proportional to the aforesaid operating voltage.

To remove a contaminant from a liquid, a pulsed electrical arc discharge is effected between two electrodes immersed in the liquid, thereby creating a plurality of particles within the liquid. One or both of the electrodes is metallic, for example iron or titanium. Before the pulsed electrical arc discharge is terminated, another step that promotes destruction of the contaminant by particles, such as removing the particles from the liquid or adding an oxidizer to the liquid, is performed. In the case of the extra step being adding an oxidizer to the liquid, preferably the termination of the pulsed electrical arc discharge is followed by allowing the liquid and the particles therein to age.

An electrocoagulation unit that may include an outer shell, and a set of electrodes disposed therein. At least two electrodes are separated from an adjacent electrode by an electrode gap. The outer shell may further include a fluid inlet; a fluid outlet; a first busbar opening with a first busbar gland associated therewith.

A method of manufacturing a composite material is provided. First, graphene oxide and activated carbon are provided individually. Graphene oxide and activated carbon are added into an alcohol to form a mixture. Then, the mixture is heated by microwave in a single step, so that graphene oxide is chemically reduced to form graphene at the active sites of the surface of the activated carbon uniformly, thereby forming a composite material. The embodied composite material is suitable for being the electrodes of the capacitive deionization (CDI) and supercapacitor application.

An electrocoagulation unit that may include an outer shell, and a set of electrodes disposed within the inner housing. Each electrode is separated from an adjacent electrode by an electrode gap spacing. The outer shell may further include a fluid inlet; a fluid outlet; a first busbar opening with a first busbar gland associated therewith.