The invention generally relates to systems and methods for producing metal clusters; functionalized surfaces; and droplets including solvated metal ions. In certain aspects, the invention provides methods that involve providing a metal and a solvent. The methods additionally involve applying voltage to the solvated metal to thereby produce solvent droplets including ions of the metal containing compound, and directing the solvent droplets including the metal ions to a target. In certain embodiments, once at the target, the metal ions can react directly or catalyze reactions.

The invention generally relates to systems and methods for producing metal clusters; functionalized surfaces; and droplets including solvated metal ions. In certain aspects, the invention provides methods that involve providing a metal and a solvent. The methods additionally involve applying voltage to the solvated metal to thereby produce solvent droplets including ions of the metal containing compound, and directing the solvent droplets including the metal ions to a target. In certain embodiments, once at the target, the metal ions can react directly or catalyze reactions.

An apparatus for continuous simultaneous electroplating of two metals having substantially different standard electrodeposition potentials (e.g., for deposition of SnAg alloys) comprises an anode chamber for containing an anolyte comprising ions of a first, less noble metal, (e.g., tin), but not of a second, more noble, metal (e.g., silver) and an active anode; a cathode chamber for containing catholyte including ions of a first metal (e.g., tin), ions of a second, more noble, metal (e.g., silver), and the substrate; a separation structure positioned between the anode chamber and the cathode chamber, where the separation structure substantially prevents transfer of more noble metal from catholyte to the anolyte; and fluidic features and an associated controller coupled to the apparatus and configured to perform continuous electroplating, while maintaining substantially constant concentrations of plating bath components for extended periods of use.

An apparatus for continuous simultaneous electroplating of two metals having substantially different standard electrodeposition potentials (e.g., for deposition of SnAg alloys) comprises an anode chamber for containing an anolyte comprising ions of a first, less noble metal, (e.g., tin), but not of a second, more noble, metal (e.g., silver) and an active anode; a cathode chamber for containing catholyte including ions of a first metal (e.g., tin), ions of a second, more noble, metal (e.g., silver), and the substrate; a separation structure positioned between the anode chamber and the cathode chamber, where the separation structure substantially prevents transfer of more noble metal from catholyte to the anolyte; and fluidic features and an associated controller coupled to the apparatus and configured to perform continuous electroplating, while maintaining substantially constant concentrations of plating bath components for extended periods of use.

Any metal having a low ?-ray emission, the metal being any one of tin, silver, copper, zinc, or indium, wherein an emission of an ?-ray after heating the metal at 100? C. in an atmosphere for six hours is 0.002 cph/cm.sup.2 or less. Any metal of tin, silver, copper, zinc and indium each including lead as an impurity is dissolved to prepare a hydrosulfate aqueous solution of the metal and lead sulfate is precipitated and removed in the solution. The lead sulfate is precipitated in the hydrosulfate aqueous solution by adding a lead nitrate aqueous solution including lead having an ?-ray emission of 10 cph/cm.sup.2 or less to the hydrosulfate aqueous solution, from which the lead sulfate has been removed, and, at the same time, the solution is circulated while removing the lead sulfate to electrowinning the metal using the hydrosulfate aqueous solution as an electrolytic solution.

Any metal having a low ?-ray emission, the metal being any one of tin, silver, copper, zinc, or indium, wherein an emission of an ?-ray after heating the metal at 100? C. in an atmosphere for six hours is 0.002 cph/cm.sup.2 or less. Any metal of tin, silver, copper, zinc and indium each including lead as an impurity is dissolved to prepare a hydrosulfate aqueous solution of the metal and lead sulfate is precipitated and removed in the solution. The lead sulfate is precipitated in the hydrosulfate aqueous solution by adding a lead nitrate aqueous solution including lead having an ?-ray emission of 10 cph/cm.sup.2 or less to the hydrosulfate aqueous solution, from which the lead sulfate has been removed, and, at the same time, the solution is circulated while removing the lead sulfate to electrowinning the metal using the hydrosulfate aqueous solution as an electrolytic solution.

A method for extracting metal ions from water is provided that includes disposing two electrically conductive electrodes in water, where the water includes a target ion species in solution, where at least one of the electrically conductive electrodes is a functionalized electrode having species-specific adsorption of the target ion species, and providing electrical current to the electrically conductive electrodes such that the one or more target ion species are deposited to metallic form or metal oxides at the functionalized electrode by one or more electrochemical reactions.

A method for extracting metal ions from water is provided that includes disposing two electrically conductive electrodes in water, where the water includes a target ion species in solution, where at least one of the electrically conductive electrodes is a functionalized electrode having species-specific adsorption of the target ion species, and providing electrical current to the electrically conductive electrodes such that the one or more target ion species are deposited to metallic form or metal oxides at the functionalized electrode by one or more electrochemical reactions.

A method to separate and recover at least one metal from a source of oxidized and/or primary and secondary sulfide ores by determining and modifying the values of the dielectric constant of the minerals source.

A method to separate and recover at least one metal from a source of oxidized and/or primary and secondary sulfide ores by determining and modifying the values of the dielectric constant of the minerals source.