The invention relates to a catalyst system for catalyzing conversion of carbon dioxide into multi-carbon compounds comprising a boron-doped copper catalytic material and associated methods.

The invention relates to a catalyst system for catalyzing conversion of carbon dioxide into multi-carbon compounds comprising a boron-doped copper catalytic material and associated methods.

A semiconductor wafer forms on a mold containing a dopant. The dopant dopes a melt region adjacent the mold. There, dopant concentration is higher than in the melt bulk. A wafer starts solidifying. Dopant diffuses poorly in solid semiconductor. After a wafer starts solidifying, dopant can not enter the melt. Afterwards, the concentration of dopant in the melt adjacent the wafer surface is less than what was present where the wafer began to form. New wafer regions grow from a melt region whose dopant concentration lessens over time. This establishes a dopant gradient in the wafer, with higher concentration adjacent the mold. The gradient can be tailored. A gradient gives rise to a field that can function as a drift or back surface field. Solar collectors can have open grid conductors and better optical reflectors on the back surface, made possible by the intrinsic back surface field.

A semiconductor wafer forms on a mold containing a dopant. The dopant dopes a melt region adjacent the mold. There, dopant concentration is higher than in the melt bulk. A wafer starts solidifying. Dopant diffuses poorly in solid semiconductor. After a wafer starts solidifying, dopant can not enter the melt. Afterwards, the concentration of dopant in the melt adjacent the wafer surface is less than what was present where the wafer began to form. New wafer regions grow from a melt region whose dopant concentration lessens over time. This establishes a dopant gradient in the wafer, with higher concentration adjacent the mold. The gradient can be tailored. A gradient gives rise to a field that can function as a drift or back surface field. Solar collectors can have open grid conductors and better optical reflectors on the back surface, made possible by the intrinsic back surface field.

A semiconductor wafer forms on a mold containing a dopant. The dopant dopes a melt region adjacent the mold. There, dopant concentration is higher than in the melt bulk. A wafer starts solidifying. Dopant diffuses poorly in solid semiconductor. After a wafer starts solidifying, dopant can not enter the melt. Afterwards, the concentration of dopant in the melt adjacent the wafer surface is less than what was present where the wafer began to form. New wafer regions grow from a melt region whose dopant concentration lessens over time. This establishes a dopant gradient in the wafer, with higher concentration adjacent the mold. The gradient can be tailored. A gradient gives rise to a field that can function as a drift or back surface field. Solar collectors can have open grid conductors and better optical reflectors on the back surface, made possible by the intrinsic back surface field.

A semiconductor wafer forms on a mold containing a dopant. The dopant dopes a melt region adjacent the mold. There, dopant concentration is higher than in the melt bulk. A wafer starts solidifying. Dopant diffuses poorly in solid semiconductor. After a wafer starts solidifying, dopant cannot enter the melt. Afterwards, the concentration of dopant in the melt adjacent the wafer surface is less than what was present where the wafer began to form. New wafer regions grow from a melt region whose dopant concentration lessens over time. This establishes a dopant gradient in the wafer, with higher concentration adjacent the mold. The gradient can be tailored. A gradient gives rise to a field that can function as a drift or back surface field. Solar collectors can have open grid conductors and better optical reflectors on the back surface, made possible by the intrinsic back surface field.

A semiconductor wafer forms on a mold containing a dopant. The dopant dopes a melt region adjacent the mold. There, dopant concentration is higher than in the melt bulk. A wafer starts solidifying. Dopant diffuses poorly in solid semiconductor. After a wafer starts solidifying, dopant cannot enter the melt. Afterwards, the concentration of dopant in the melt adjacent the wafer surface is less than what was present where the wafer began to form. New wafer regions grow from a melt region whose dopant concentration lessens over time. This establishes a dopant gradient in the wafer, with higher concentration adjacent the mold. The gradient can be tailored. A gradient gives rise to a field that can function as a drift or back surface field. Solar collectors can have open grid conductors and better optical reflectors on the back surface, made possible by the intrinsic back surface field.

Using processes disclosed herein, materials and structures are created and used. For example, processes can include melting amorphous carbon doped with nitrogen and carbon-13 into an undercooled state followed by quenching. Materials disclosed herein may include dopants in concentrations exceeding thermodynamic solubility limits.

Using processes disclosed herein, materials and structures are created and used. For example, processes can include melting amorphous carbon doped with nitrogen and carbon-13 into an undercooled state followed by quenching. Materials disclosed herein may include dopants in concentrations exceeding thermodynamic solubility limits.

Methods for producing single crystal silicon wafers for use in insulated gate bipolar transistors are disclosed. The methods may involve determining the radial profile of a ratio between (i) a growth velocity, v, and (ii) an axial temperature gradient, G for an ingot with relatively low oxygen. Based on the radial v/G profile, a nitrogen concentration which widens the v/G window to produce Perfect Silicon free of COP and gate oxide failures may be selected.