Disclosed herein are embodiments of nanohoop compounds and conjugates thereof that can be used myriad biological applications. The nanohoop compounds described herein can exhibit beneficial properties that are useful in biotechnology, such as a fluorescent tag, probe, or label.

A lubricant including: an ionic liquid, which includes a conjugate acid (B.sup.+) and a conjugate base (X.sup.), and is protic, wherein the ionic liquid is represented by the following general formula (1), and wherein the conjugate base is a conjugate base of sulfonic acid, a conjugate base of sulfonimide, or a conjugate base of trisulfonylmethide: ##STR00001##
where R.sup.1 and R.sup.2 each represent a hydrogen atom or R.sup.1 and R.sup.2 form a benzene ring together with carbon atoms to which R.sup.1 and R.sup.2 are bonded, R.sup.3 represents a to straight-chain hydrocarbon group having 10 or more carbon atoms, and R.sup.4 represents a hydrogen atom or a hydrocarbon group in the general formula (1).

A lubricant including: an ionic liquid, which includes a conjugate acid (B.sup.+) and a conjugate base (X.sup.), and is protic, wherein the ionic liquid is represented by the following general formula (1), and wherein the conjugate base is a conjugate base of sulfonic acid, a conjugate base of sulfonimide, or a conjugate base of trisulfonylmethide: ##STR00001##
where R.sup.1 and R.sup.2 each represent a hydrogen atom or R.sup.1 and R.sup.2 form a benzene ring together with carbon atoms to which R.sup.1 and R.sup.2 are bonded, R.sup.3 represents a to straight-chain hydrocarbon group having 10 or more carbon atoms, and R.sup.4 represents a hydrogen atom or a hydrocarbon group in the general formula (1).

The present invention includes methods/processes and intermediates for preparing compounds having structural Formula (I):

##STR00001##

wherein X is alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, heteroalkyl, substituted heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, or substituted heteroalkenyl.

The present invention includes methods/processes and intermediates for preparing compounds having structural Formula (I):

##STR00001##

wherein X is alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, heteroalkyl, substituted heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, or substituted heteroalkenyl.

In one aspect, the invention provides a method of promoting a carbon-sulfur bond forming reaction. In certain embodiments, the reaction comprises cross-coupling of a(n) (hetero)aryl halide with a thiol to form the carbon-sulfur bond, wherein the method is promoted by light irradiation in the absence of a photocatalyst. In other embodiments, the cross-coupling reaction can be promoted through visible light irradiation, including sunlight.

In one aspect, the invention provides a method of promoting a carbon-sulfur bond forming reaction. In certain embodiments, the reaction comprises cross-coupling of a(n) (hetero)aryl halide with a thiol to form the carbon-sulfur bond, wherein the method is promoted by light irradiation in the absence of a photocatalyst. In other embodiments, the cross-coupling reaction can be promoted through visible light irradiation, including sunlight.

The present invention includes methods/processes and intermediates for preparing compounds having structural Formula (I): ##STR00001##
wherein X is alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, heteroalkyl, substituted heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, or substituted heteroalkenyl.

The present invention includes methods/processes and intermediates for preparing compounds having structural Formula (I): ##STR00001##
wherein X is alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, heteroalkyl, substituted heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, or substituted heteroalkenyl.

The present disclosure relates to a lipid compound of formula (Ia) or (AL-GI):

##STR00001##

having various cleavable linkers defined by the variables Z.sub.1 and Z.sub.2 and Z.sup.10 and Z.sup.20. The present disclosure also relates to a lipid carrier or lipid nanoformulation employing the lipid compound, and the use of the lipid compound in a pharmaceutical composition as well as for a method of delivering an effector, e.g., a therapeutic agent.