AIR-MATRIX DIGITAL MICROFLUIDICS APPARATUSES AND METHODS FOR LIMITING EVAPORATION AND SURFACE FOULING

Abstract

Air-matrix digital microfluidics (DMF) apparatuses and methods of using them to prevent or limit evaporation and surface fouling of the DMF apparatus. In particular, described herein are air-matrix DMF apparatuses and methods of using them in which a separate well that is accessible from the air gap of the DMF apparatus isolates a reaction droplet by including a cover to prevent evaporation. The cover may be a lid or cap, or it may be an oil or wax material within the well. The opening into the well and/or the well itself may include actuation electrodes to allow the droplet to be placed into, and in some cases removed from, the well. Also described herein are air-matrix DMF apparatuses and methods of using them including thermally controllable regions with a wax material that may be used to selectively encapsulate a reaction droplet in the air gap of the apparatus.

Claims

1. A method comprising: moving a reaction droplet to a thermal zone of an air-matrix digital microfluidic (DMF) apparatus, wherein the thermal zone includes a wax body; heating the reaction droplet and wax body in the thermal zone to combine the reaction droplet with a liquid wax from the wax body to form a coated reaction droplet; moving the coated reaction droplet to a location within an air gap of the air-matrix DMF apparatus; and proceeding with a reaction within the coated reaction droplet at the location, wherein the liquid wax protects the coated reaction droplet from evaporation.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the wax body is formed into a wall.

3. The method of claim 1, wherein the wax body is thermally printed into the air-matrix DMF.

4. The method of claim 3, wherein the thermal printing includes screen printing, 2D printing, 3D printing, or a combination thereof.

5. The method of claim 1, wherein the wax body has a melting temperature that is higher than an ambient temperature.

6. The method of claim 1, wherein heating the reaction droplet and the wax body comprises heating the reaction droplet and the wax body above a melting temperature of the wax body.

7. The method of claim 1, wherein the coated reaction droplet comprises the liquid wax covering the reaction droplet.

8. The method of claim 1, wherein the wax body is inert with respect to the reaction droplet.

9. The method of claim 1, wherein the air gap is formed between a first plate and a second plate of the air-matrix DMF.

10. The method of claim 9, wherein the first plate comprises a plurality of adjacent actuation electrodes, and wherein moving the coated reaction droplet comprises applying energy to a subset of the plurality of adjacent actuation electrodes thereby moving the coated reaction droplet.

11. The method of claim 1, further comprising analyzing the reaction droplet within the coated reaction droplet.

12. The method of claim 1, further comprising separating the liquid wax from the coated reaction droplet after proceeding with the reaction and analyzing the reaction droplet after separation of the liquid wax.

13. A method comprising: moving a reaction droplet in an air gap of an air-matrix digital microfluidic (DMF) apparatus to a wax body; merging the reaction droplet with the wax body; melting the wax body to encapsulate the reaction droplet with liquid wax; and proceeding with a reaction within the encapsulated reaction droplet, wherein the liquid wax protects the reaction droplet from evaporation.

14. The method of claim 13, wherein the wax body is thermally printed in the air gap of the DMF apparatus.

15. The method of claim 13, wherein the liquid wax is inert with respect to the reaction droplet.

16. The method of claim 13, wherein proceeding with the reaction further comprises decreasing a temperature of the encapsulated reaction droplet to solidify the liquid wax.

17. The method of claim 16, further comprising heating the encapsulated reaction droplet to liquefy the solidified wax and separating the liquified wax from the encapsulated reaction droplet to analyze the reaction droplet.

18. A method comprising: moving a reaction droplet to a reaction chamber of an air-matrix digital microfluidic (DMF) apparatus, wherein the reaction chamber includes a solid wax body; heating the reaction chamber to combine the reaction droplet with a liquid wax melted from the solid wax body and form a coated reaction droplet; and proceeding with a reaction within the reaction chamber, wherein the liquid wax protects the reaction droplet from evaporation.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0047] The novel features of the invention are set forth with particularity in the claims that follow. A better understanding of the features and advantages of the present invention will be obtained by reference to the following detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments, in which the principles of the invention are utilized, and the accompanying drawings of which:

[0048] FIG. 1 is a top view of an example of a portion of an air-matrix DMF apparatus, showing a plurality of unit cells (defined by the underlying actuating electrodes) and reaction chamber openings (access holes).

[0049] FIG. 2A shows the top view of FIG. 1 and FIGS. 2B-2D show side views of variations of reaction chamber wells that may be used in an air-matrix DMF apparatus. In FIG. 2B the reaction chamber well comprises a centrifuge tube; in FIG. 2C the reaction chamber well comprises a well plate (which may be part of a multi-well plate); and in FIG. 2D the reaction chamber well is formed as part of the pate of the air-matrix DMF apparatus.

[0050] FIGS. 3A-3E illustrate movement (e.g., controlled by a controller of an air-matrix DMF apparatus) into an then out of a reaction chamber, as described herein. In this example, the reaction chamber well is shown in a side view of the air-matrix DMF apparatus and the reaction chamber is integrally formed into a plate (e.g., a first or lower plate) of the air-matrix DMF apparatus which includes actuation electrodes (reaction well actuation electrodes) therein.

[0051] FIGS. 4A and 4B show side views of air-matrix DMF apparatuses in which a reaction chamber well includes an inert coating substance (e.g., oil, wax, etc.) that may combine with and cover the reaction droplet.

[0052] FIGS. 5A-5B show a side view of one example of a portion of an air-matrix DMF apparatus in which the top plate is flexible and includes a cover (e.g., plug, cap, lid, etc.) for the reaction chamber opening that is coupled to the plate. FIG. 5A shows the reaction chamber well (configured as a tube) before the reaction chamber opening is sealed, and FIG. 5B shows the reaction chamber well after pushing on the flexible top plate to seal the reaction chamber opening with the plug.

[0053] FIGS. 5C-5D illustrate sealing of another variation of a reaction chamber well using a flexible top plate having an integrated cover opposite from the reaction chamber well opening.

[0054] FIG. 5C shows the reaction chamber well before it is sealed and FIG. 5D shows the reaction chamber well after pushing down on the top plate to seal it.

[0055] FIG. 6A shows a time series of photos of an air matrix DMF apparatus including a wax (in this example, paraffin) body which is melted and covers a reaction droplet.

[0056] FIG. 6B is an example of a time series similar to that shown in FIGS. 6A(3) and 6A(4), without using a wax body to cover the reaction droplet, showing significant evaporation.

[0057] FIG. 7 is a graph comparing an amplification reaction by LAMP with and without a wax covering as described herein, protecting the reaction droplet from evaporation.

[0058] FIG. 8A show graphical results of LAMP using paraffin-mediated methods; this may be qualitatively compared to the graph of FIG. 8B shows graphical results of LAMP using conventional methods.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0059] Described herein are air-matrix digital microfluidics (DMF) methods and apparatuses that may minimize the effect of surface fouling and/or evaporation. An air-matrix DMF apparatus as described herein may be particularly useful when heating the reaction droplets being processed.

[0060] In general, an air-matrix DMF apparatus as disclosed herein may have any appropriate shape or size. As used herein, the term “surface fouling” may refer to accumulation of unwanted materials on solid surfaces, including with the air gap of the air matrix DMF apparatus (e.g., upper and/or lower plate surfaces). Surface fouling materials can consist of either living organisms (biofouling) or a non-living substance (inorganic or organic). Surface fouling is usually distinguished from other surface-growth phenomena in that it occurs on a surface of a component, or system and that the fouling process impedes or interferes with function.

[0061] The air-matrix DMF apparatuses described herein generally include at least one hydrophobic surface and a plurality of activation electrodes adjacent to the surface; either the hydrophobic surface may also be a dielectric material or an additional dielectric material/layer may be positioned between the actuation electrodes and the hydrophobic surface. For example, in some variations, the air-matrix DMF includes a series of layers on a printed circuit board (PCB) forming a first or bottom plate. The outer (top) surface of this plate is the hydrophobic layer. Above this layer is the air gap (air gap region) along which a reaction droplet may be manipulated. In some variations a second plate may be positioned opposite from the first plate, forming the air gap region between the two. The second plate may also include a hydrophobic coating and in some variations may also include a ground electrode or multiple ground electrodes opposite the actuation electrodes. The actuation electrodes may be configured for moving droplets from one region to another within the DMF device, and may be electrically coupled to a controller (e.g., control circuitry) for applying energy to drive movement of the droplets in the air gap. As mentioned, this plate may also include a dielectric layer for increasing the capacitance between the reaction droplet and the actuation electrodes. The reaction starting materials and reagents, as well as additional additive reagents may be in reservoirs that may be dispensed into the air gap, where the reaction mixture is typically held during the reaction. In some instances the starting materials, reagents, and components needed in subsequent steps may be stored in separate areas of the air gap layer such that their proximity from each other prevents them from prematurely mixing with each other. In other instances, the air gap layer may include features that are able to compartmentalize different reaction mixtures such that they may be close in proximity to each other but separated by a physical barrier. In general, the floor of the air gap is in the first plate, and is in electrical contact with a series of actuation electrodes.

[0062] The air gap DMF apparatuses described herein may also include other elements for providing the needed reaction conditions. For instance, the air gap DMF apparatuses may include one or more thermal regulators (e.g., heating or cooling element such as thermoelectric modules) for heating and cooling all or a region (thermal zone) of the air gap. In other instances, heating or cooling may be provided by controlling endothermic or exothermic reactions to regulate temperature. The air gap DMF apparatuses may also include temperature detectors (e.g. resistive temperature detector) for monitoring the temperature during a reaction run.

[0063] Thus, the air gap DMF apparatuses described herein may include one or more thermal zones. Thermal zones are regions on the air gap DMF apparatuses (e.g., the air gap) that may be heated or cooled, where the thermal zones may transfer the heating or cooling to a droplet within the thermal zone through one or more surfaces in contact with the air gap region in the zone (e.g., the first plate). Heating and cooling may be through a thermal regulator such as a thermoelectric module or other type of temperature-modulating component. The temperature of one or many thermal zones may be monitored through a temperature detector or sensor, where the temperature information may be communicated to a computer or other telecommunication device. The temperature is typically regulated between 4° C. and 100° C., as when these apparatuses are configured to perform one or more reactions such as, but not limited to: nucleic acid amplifications, like LAMP, PCR, molecular assays, cDNA synthesis, organic synthesis, etc.

[0064] An air gap DMF apparatus may also include one or more thermal voids. Thermal voids may be disposed adjacent to the different thermal zones. The thermal voids are typically regions in which heat conduction is limited, e.g., by removing part of the plate (e.g., first plate) (forming the “void”). These voids may be strategically placed to isolate one thermal zone from another which allows the correct temperatures to be maintained within each thermal zone.

[0065] In general, any of the air-matrix DMF apparatuses described herein may include a separate reaction chamber that is separate or separable from the air gap of the apparatus, but may be accessed through the air gap region. The reaction chamber typically includes a reaction chamber opening that is continuous with the lower surface of the air gap (e.g., the first plate), and a reaction chamber well that forms a cup-like region in which a droplet may be controllably placed (and in some variations, removed) by the apparatus to perform a reaction when covered. The cover may be a mechanical cover (e.g., a cover the seals or partially seals the reaction chamber opening, or a cover that encapsulates, encloses or otherwise surrounds the reaction droplet, such as an oil or wax material that mixes with (then separates from and surrounds) the reaction droplet when the two are combined in the reaction chamber.

[0066] In general, the reaction chamber opening may be any shape or size (e.g., round, square, rectangular, hexagonal, octagonal, etc.) and may pass through the first (e.g., lower) plate, and into the reaction chamber well. In some variations, the reaction chamber opening passes through one or more actuation electrodes; in particular, the reaction chamber opening may be completely or partially surrounded by an actuation electrode.

[0067] FIG. 1 shows a top view of an exemplary air-matrix DMF apparatus 101. As shown, the DMF device may include a series of paths defined by actuation electrodes. The actuation electrodes 103 are shown in FIG. 1 as a series of squares, each defining a unit cell. These actuation electrodes may have any appropriate shape and size, and are not limited to squares. For example, the unit cells formed by the actuation electrodes in the first layer may be round, hexagonal, triangular, rectangular, octagonal, parallelogram-shaped, etc. In the example of FIG. 1, the squares representing the unit cells may indicate the physical location of the actuation electrodes in the DMF device or may indicate the area where the actuation electrode has an effect (e.g., an effective area such that when a droplet is situated over the denoted area, the corresponding actuation electrode may affect the droplet's movement or other physical property). The actuation electrodes 103 may be placed in any pattern. In some examples, actuation electrodes may span the entire corresponding bottom or top surface the air gap of the DMF apparatus. The actuation electrodes may be in electrical contact with starting sample chambers (not shown) as well as reagent chambers (not shown) for moving different droplets to different regions within the air gap to be mixed with reagent droplets or heated.

[0068] In the air-matrix apparatuses described herein, the first (lower) plate also includes one or more reaction chamber openings (access holes) 105, 105′. Access to the reaction chamber wells may allow reaction droplets to be initially introduced or for allowing reagent droplets to be added later. In particular, one or more reaction droplets may be manipulate in the air gap (moved, mixed, heated, etc.) and temporarily or permanently moved out of the air gap and into a reaction chamber well though a reaction chamber opening. As shown, some of the reaction chamber openings 105′ pass through an actuation electrode. As will be shown in greater detail herein, the reaction chamber may itself include additional actuation electrodes that may be used to move a reaction chamber droplet into/out of the reaction chamber well. In some variations one or more actuation electrodes may be continued (out of the plane of the air gap) into the reaction chamber well.

[0069] In general, one or more additional reagents may be subsequently introduced either manually or by automated means in the air gap. In some instances, the access holes may be actual access ports that may couple to outside reservoirs of reagents or reaction components through tubing for introducing additional reaction components or reagents at a later time. As mentioned, the access holes (including reaction chamber openings) may be located in close proximity to a DMF actuation electrode(s). Access holes 105, 105′ may also be disposed on the side or the bottom of the DMF apparatus. In general, the apparatus may include a controller 110 for controlling operation of the actuation electrodes, including moving droplets into and/or out of reaction chambers. The controller may be in electrical communication with the electrodes and it may apply power in a controlled manner to coordinate movement of droplets within the air gap and into/out of the reaction chambers. The controller may also be electrically connected to the one or more temperature regulators (thermal regulators 120) to regulate temperature in the thermal zones 115. One or more sensors (e.g., video sensors, electrical sensors, temperature sensors, etc.) may also be included (not shown) and may provide input to the controller which may use the input from these one or more sensors to control motion and temperature.

[0070] As indicated above, surface fouling is an issue that has plagued microfluidics, including DMF devices. Surface fouling occurs when certain constituents of a reaction mixture irreversibly adsorbs onto a surface that the reaction mixture is in contact with. Surface fouling also appears more prevalent in samples containing proteins and other biological molecules. Increases in temperature may also contribute to surface fouling. The DMF apparatuses and methods described herein aim to minimize the effects of surface fouling. One such way is to perform the bulk of the reaction steps in a reaction chamber that is in fluid communication with the air gap layer. The reaction chamber may be an insert that fits into an aperture of the DMF device as shown in FIGS. 2B and 2C. FIG. 2B shows the floor (e.g., first plate) of an air gap region coupled to a centrifuge (e.g., Eppendorf) tube 205 while FIG. 2C incorporates a well-plate 207 (e.g., of a single or multi-well plate) into the floor of the air gap region. A built-in well 209 may also be specifically fabricated to be included in the air-matrix DMF apparatus as shown in FIG. 2D. When a separate or separable tube or plate is used, the tubes may be coupled to the DMF device using any suitable coupling or bonding means (e.g. snap-fit, friction fit, threading, adhesive such as glue, resin, etc., or the like).

[0071] In general, having a dedicated reaction chamber within the DMF device minimizes surface fouling especially when the reaction is heated. Thus, while surface fouling may still occur within the reaction chamber, it may be mainly constrained to within the reaction chamber. This allows the majority of the air gap region floor to remain minimally contaminated by surface fouling and clear for use in subsequent transfer of reagents or additional reaction materials if needed, thus allowing for multi-step or more complex reactions to be performed. When the reaction step or in some instances, the entire reaction is completed, the droplet containing the product may be moved out of the reaction chamber to be analyzed. In some examples, the product droplet may be analyzed directly within the reaction chamber.

[0072] In order to bring the droplet(s) containing the starting materials and the reagent droplets into the reaction chamber, additional actuation electrodes, which may also be covered/coated with a dielectric and a hydrophobic layer (or a combined hydrophobic/dielectric layer), may be used. FIGS. 3A-3E show a series of drawings depicting droplet 301 movement into and out of an integrated well 305. As this series of drawings show, in addition to lining the floor of the air gap layer, additional actuation electrodes 307 line the sides and the bottom of the well. In some variations, the same actuation electrode in the air gap may be extended into the reaction chamber opening. The actuation electrodes 307 (e.g., the reaction chamber actuation electrodes) may be embedded into or present on the sides and bottom of the well for driving the movement of the droplets into/out of the reaction chamber well. Actuation electrodes may also cover the opening of the reaction chamber. In FIG. 3A, a droplet 301 (e.g., reaction droplet) in the air gap layer may be moved (using DMF) to the reaction chamber opening. The actuation electrodes 307 along the edge of the well and the sides of the well maintain contact with the droplet as it moved down the well walls to the bottom of the well (shown in FIGS. 3B and 3C). Once in the reaction chamber well, the droplet may be covered (as described in more detail below, either by placing a cover (e.g., lid, cap, etc.) over the reaction chamber opening and/or by mixing the droplet with a covering (e.g., encapsulating) material such as an oil or wax (e.g., when the droplet is aqueous). In general, the droplet may be allowed to react further within the well, and may be temperature-regulated (e.g., heated, cooled, etc.), additional material may be added (not shown) and/or it may be observed (to detect reaction product). Alternatively or additionally, the droplet may be moved out of the well using the actuation electrodes; if a mechanical cover (e.g., lid) has been used, it may be removed first. If an encapsulating material has been used it may be left on.

[0073] In some variations contacts may penetrate the surfaces of the reaction chamber. For example, there may be at least ten electrical insertion points in order to provide sufficient electrical contact between the actuation electrodes and the interior of the reaction chamber. In other examples there may need to be at least 20, 30, or even 40 electrical insertion points to provide sufficient contact for all the interior surfaces of the reaction chamber. The interior of the reaction chamber may be hydrophobic or hydrophilic (e.g., to assist in accepting the droplet). As mentioned, an electrode (actuation electrode) may apply a potential to move the droplets into and/or out of the well.

[0074] In general, the actuation electrodes may bring the droplet into the well in a controlled manner and minimizes dispersion of the droplet as it is moved into the well and thus maintaining as cohesive a sample droplet as possible. FIGS. 3D and 3E show the droplet being moved up the wall of the well and then out of the reaction chamber. This may be useful for performing additional subsequent steps or for detecting or analyzing the product of interest within the droplet, although these steps may also or alternatively be performed within the well. Actuation electrodes may be on the bottom surface, the sides and the lip of the well in contact with the air gap layer; some actuation electrodes may also or alternatively be present on the upper (top) layer.

[0075] In instances where the reaction compartment is an independent structure integrated with the DMF devices as those shown in FIGS. 2A and 2B, the thickness of the substrate (e.g. PCB) may be similar to what is commonly used in DMF fabrication. When the reaction compartment is an integrated well structure fabricated in the bottom plate of the DMF device as shown in FIG. 2D, the thickness of the substrate may be equivalent to the depth of the well.

[0076] In another embodiment, the electrodes embedded in the reaction compartments can include electrodes for the electrical detection of the reaction outputs. Electrical detection methods include but are not limited to electrochemistry. In some instances, using the changes in electrical properties of the electrodes when the electrodes contact the reaction droplet, reagent droplet, or additional reaction component to obtain information about the reaction (e.g., changes in resistance correlated with position of a droplet).

[0077] The apparatuses described herein may also prevent evaporation. Evaporation may result in concentrating the reaction mixture, which may be detrimental as a loss of reagents in the reaction mixture may alter the concentration of the reaction mixture and result in mismatched concentration between the intermediate reaction droplet with subsequent addition of other reaction materials of a given concentration. In some variations, such as with enzymatic reactions, enzymes are highly sensitive to changes in reaction environment and loss of reagent may alter the effectiveness of certain enzymes. Evaporation is especially problematic when the reaction mixture has to be heated to above ambient temperature for an extended period of time. In many instances, microfluidics and DMF devices utilizes an oil-matrix for performing biochemical type reactions in microfluidic and DMF devices to address unwanted evaporation. One major drawback of using an oil in the DMF reaction is the added complexity of incorporating additional structures to contain the oil.

[0078] The well or reaction chamber structure described herein provides a simple solution for maintaining oil in a DMF device. FIGS. 4A and 4B show the DMF devices having a well or tube integrated into its structure (reaction chamber well) where the well or tube may including a protective/coating material such as oil 405, 407. This may allow the reaction steps that require heating to be performed in an oil environment where the oil is able to limit evaporation of the reaction mixture. If additional steps are still required, the reaction droplet may be brought out of the tube or well through use of the actuation electrodes to move the reaction droplet to a different location. Other covers comprising coating or covering agents may include wax materials (e.g., paraffin, etc.) or the like, which may be melted to combine with and cover/coat the reaction droplet. The temperature may be adjusted to add (or in some variations, remove) the wax material from the droplet. As described in greater detail below, a wax material may be used in the air gap directly, without a dedicated reaction chamber (or forming the reaction ‘chamber’ in the air gap from the wax material).

[0079] Covering the droplet may allow performance of reaction steps (particularly those that require heating) and may limit evaporation. For example, the reaction chamber well may be mechanically covered by covering the reaction chamber opening. FIGS. 5A-5C suggest one way of covering a reaction chamber opening using a cap, plug, or lid 505 that is coupled to the upper plate 503. In this example, the top plate of the DMF apparatus may be flexible. When force 510 is applied to an outer surface of the top plate, the plate becomes deformed and the cap 505 is pushed down into the reaction well opening, sealing the reaction chamber well 501, as shown in FIG. 5B. In the example of FIGS. 5A and 5B the reaction chamber well is a tube 505 (e.g., microfuge tube, etc.). The air-matrix DMF apparatus includes a lower plate with actuation electrodes 507 covered by a hydrophobic (and in this example, dielectric) layer 509.

[0080] Similarly, FIGS. 5C and 5D illustrate a variation in which the reaction chamber/well 551 is formed into the lower plate and the upper plate 503 also includes a cover 505 (e.g., cap, lid, plug, etc.). Alternatively, the upper plate may be lowered over the cover to seal the reaction chamber/well opening even if it does not include a separate cover, etc. For example the upper plate itself may cover the opening. In general, it is not necessary that the upper plate be flexible, as the entire upper plate may be lowered to seal the reaction chamber well (not shown); the upper plate may later be restored to the same air gap width if desired, and the droplet may be returned to the air gap or not, as illustrated in FIGS. 3A-3E for additional processing/detection. Being able to perform a heated step of a reaction in a closed chamber may aid with evaporation prevention and, unlike instances where the entire DMF device is placed in a humidifying chamber, does not cause unwanted condensation in other regions of the DMF device.

[0081] Another method that has been developed to combat evaporation is the use of wax (e.g. paraffin) in minimizing evaporation during a reaction. A wax substance may include substances that are composed of long alkyl chains. Waxes typically solids at ambient temperatures having a melting point of approximately 46° C. to approximately 68° C. depending upon the amount of substitution within the hydrocarbon chain. In some instances higher melting point waxes may be purifying crude wax mixtures.

[0082] As mentioned above, the wax is one type of sealing material that may be used as a cover (e.g., within a reaction chamber that is separate from the plane of the air gap. In some variations, wax may be used within the air gap. In particular, the wax may be beneficially kept solid until it is desired to mix it with the reaction droplet so that it may coat and protect the reaction droplet. Typically the wax material (or other coating material) may be mixed with the reaction droplet and enclose (e.g., encapsulate, surround, etc.) the aqueous reaction droplet.

[0083] When a reaction droplet is maintained within a paraffin coating, not only is evaporation minimized, but the paraffin may also insulate the reaction droplet from other potentially reaction interfering factors. In some instances, a solid piece of paraffin or other wax substance may be placed within a thermal zone of the air gap layer of the DMF device. For example, during a reaction, actuation electrodes may move a reaction droplet to a wax (e.g., paraffin) body. Upon heating to a melting temperature, the wax body may melt and cover the reaction droplet. The reaction then may continue for an extended period of time (including at elevated temperatures) without need to replenish the reaction solvents, while preventing loss by evaporation. For example wax-encapsulated droplet may be held and/or moved to a thermal zone to control the temperature. The temperature may be decreased or increased (allowing control of the phase of the wax as well, as the wax is typically inert in the reactions being performed in the reaction droplet). The temperature at that particular thermal zone may be further increased to melt the paraffin and release the reaction droplet. The reaction droplet may be analyzed for the desired product when encapsulated by the liquid or solid wax, or it may be moved to another region of the DMF device for further reaction steps after removing it from the wax covering. Paraffins or other wax materials having the desired qualities (e.g. melting point above the reaction temperature) may be used. For example, paraffins typically have melting points between 50 and 70 degrees Celsius, but their melting points may be increased with increasing longer and heavier alkanes.

[0084] FIG. 6A shows time-sequence images (numbered 1-4) taken from an example using a wax body within the air matrix as discussed above, showing profound reduction in evaporation as compared to a control without wax (shown in FIG. 6B, images 1-2). In FIG. 6A, the first image, in the top right, shows an 8 μL reaction droplet 603 that has been moved by DMF in the air matrix apparatus to a thermal zone (“heating zone”) containing a solid wax body (e.g., paraffin wall 601). Once in position, the reaction droplet may be merged with a solid paraffin wall (e.g., thermally printed onto DMF), as shown in image 2 of FIG. 6A, or the wax material may be melted first (not shown). In FIG. 6A image 3, the thermal zone is heated (63° C.) to or above the melting point of the wax material thereby melting the paraffin around the reaction droplet, and the reaction droplet is surrounded/encapsulated by the wax material, thus preventing the droplet from evaporation as shown in FIG. 6A images 3 and 4. Using this approach, in the example shown in FIG. 6A image 4, the volume of reaction droplets was maintained roughly constant at 63° C. for an incubation time approximately two hours long (120 min). An equivalent experiment without the paraffin wall was performed, and shown in FIG. 6B. The left picture (image 1) in FIG. 6B shows the reaction droplet 603′ at time zero at 63° C. and the right picture of FIG. 6B shows the reaction droplet after 60 minutes at 63° C. As shown, the reaction droplet almost completely evaporated within approximately an hour's time at 63° C.

[0085] Through this approach of enclosing a droplet in a shell of liquid wax, the reaction volume and temperature are maintained constant without the use of oil, a humidified chamber, off-chip heating, or droplet replenishment methods. Waxes other than paraffin can be used to prevent droplet evaporation as long as their melting temperature is higher than the ambient temperature, but lower or equal to the reaction temperature. Examples of such waxes include paraffin, bees and palm waxes. The wax-like solids can be thermally printed on the DMF device surface by screen-, 2D- or 3D-printing. This wax-mediated evaporation prevention solution is an important advancement in developing air-matrix DMF devices for a wide variety of new high-impact applications.

[0086] As mentioned, the wax-based evaporation methods described may be used in conjunction with the DMF devices having a reaction chamber feature. In those instances, the wax may be present in the reaction chamber and the reaction droplet may be moved to the reaction chamber containing wax for performing the reaction steps requiring heating. Once the heating step has completed, the reaction droplet may be removed from the reaction chamber for detection or to perform subsequent reaction steps within the air gap layer of the DMF device.

[0087] The methods and apparatuses described herein may be used for preventing evaporation in air-matrix DMF devices and may enable facile and reliable execution of any chemistry protocols on DMF with the requirement for a temperature higher than the ambient temperature. Such protocols include, but are not limited to, DNA/RNA digestion/fragmentation, cDNA synthesis, PCR, RT-PCR, isothermal reactions (LAMP, rolling circle amplification-RCA, Strand Displacement Amplification-SDA, Helicase Dependent Amplification-HDA, Nicking Enzyme Amplification reaction-NEAR, Nucleic acid sequence-based amplification-NASBA, Single primer isothermal amplification-SPIA, cross-priming amplification-CPA, Polymerase Spiral Reaction-PSR, Rolling circle replication-RCR), as well as ligation-based detection and amplification techniques (ligase chain reaction-LCR, ligation combined with reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction-RT PCR, ligation-mediated polymerase chain reaction-LMPCR, polymerase chain reaction/ligation detection reaction-PCR/LDR, ligation-dependent polymerase chain reaction-LD-PCR, oligonucleotide ligation assay-OLA, ligation-during-amplification-LDA, ligation of padlock probes, open circle probes, and other circularizable probes, and iterative gap ligation-IGL, ligase chain reaction-LCR, over a range of temperatures (37-100° C.) and incubation times (≥2 hr).

Example 1: Device Fabrication and Assembly

[0088] DMF apparatuses that include embedded centrifuge tubes and/or well-plate wells (e.g., FIGS. 2B, 2C) were constructed by drilling 5.5 mm diameter holes into 3 mm thick PCB substrates, bearing copper (43 μm thick) plated with nickel (185 μm) and gold (3.6 μm) for electrodes and conductive traces. Tubes and wells were then inserted into holes. DMF devices with embedded wells (e.g., FIG. 2D) were fabricated with holes (5 mm diameter, 10 mm depth) drilled in 15 mm thick PCB substrates. Actuation electrodes (each 10 mm×10 mm) were formed by conventional photolithography and etching, and were coated with soldermask (˜15 μm) as the dielectric. As shown in FIGS. 3A-3E, some of the electrodes were formed around and adjacent to the hole which served as the access point to reaction compartments. The electrical contact pads were masked with polyimide tape (DuPont; Hayward, Calif.), and the substrate was spin-coated with a 50 nm layer of Teflon-AF (1% wt/wt in Fluorinert FC-40, 1500 rpm for 30 sec) and then baked at 100° C. for 3 h. The top plate of the DMF device, consisting of a glass substrate coated uniformly with unpatterned indium tin oxide (ITO) (Delta Technologies Ltd; Stillwater, Minn.) with 5.5 mm diameter PDMS plugs was spin-coated with 50 nm of Teflon-AF, as described above.

[0089] Prototype devices fabricated as described above performed better or as well as air-gap DMF apparatuses without reaction chambers.

Example 2: Quantifying Evaporation Prevention Using Waxes

[0090] To qualitatively evaluate the effect of wax bodies to prevent evaporation in our assays, loop mediated amplification (LAMP) reactions were executed while covered in liquid paraffin wax in tubes on the benchtop using a real-time PCR Machine. As shown in FIG. 7, the LAMP assay amplified miR-451, and the C.sub.t values with and without paraffin were comparable (˜13 cycles), indicating no significant effect on the assay. For LAMP on DMF, the reaction droplet (8 μL) was driven to heating zone (as shown in FIG. 6A). There, the droplet wets the solid paraffin wax wall which under conditional heating at 63° C. will melt into liquid wax to encircle the reaction volume and maintain it intact throughout the incubation time at 63° C. FIG. 8A shows a LAMP assay using paraffin-mediated methods, while FIG. 8B shows a LAMP assay using conventional methods. In FIG. 8A, the two upper traces are for a hemolyzed sampled while the two lower traces are for a non-hemolyzed sample. The two traces of each are to show repeatability of the runs using wax-mediated air matrix DMF. In FIG. 8B, the conventional LAMP assay for a hemolyzed sample are shown in upper two traces while the non-hemolyzed LAMP runs are shown in lower two traces. Again, the two upper and two lower traces each are to show result repeatability. The wax-mediated approach on DMF generated results comparable in C.sub.t values to those generated by conventional LAMP in tubes as shown in FIGS. 8A and 8B.

[0091] When a feature or element is herein referred to as being “on” another feature or element, it can be directly on the other feature or element or intervening features and/or elements may also be present. In contrast, when a feature or element is referred to as being “directly on” another feature or element, there are no intervening features or elements present. It will also be understood that, when a feature or element is referred to as being “connected”, “attached” or “coupled” to another feature or element, it can be directly connected, attached or coupled to the other feature or element or intervening features or elements may be present. In contrast, when a feature or element is referred to as being “directly connected”, “directly attached” or “directly coupled” to another feature or element, there are no intervening features or elements present. Although described or shown with respect to one embodiment, the features and elements so described or shown can apply to other embodiments. It will also be appreciated by those of skill in the art that references to a structure or feature that is disposed “adjacent” another feature may have portions that overlap or underlie the adjacent feature.

[0092] Terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting of the invention. For example, as used herein, the singular forms “a”, “an” and “the” are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. It will be further understood that the terms “comprises” and/or “comprising,” when used in this specification, specify the presence of stated features, steps, operations, elements, and/or components, but do not preclude the presence or addition of one or more other features, steps, operations, elements, components, and/or groups thereof. As used herein, the term “and/or” includes any and all combinations of one or more of the associated listed items and may be abbreviated as “/”.

[0093] Spatially relative terms, such as “under”, “below”, “lower”, “over”, “upper” and the like, may be used herein for ease of description to describe one element or feature's relationship to another element(s) or feature(s) as illustrated in the figures. It will be understood that the spatially relative terms are intended to encompass different orientations of the device in use or operation in addition to the orientation depicted in the figures. For example, if a device in the figures is inverted, elements described as “under” or “beneath” other elements or features would then be oriented “over” the other elements or features. Thus, the exemplary term “under” can encompass both an orientation of over and under. The device may be otherwise oriented (rotated 90 degrees or at other orientations) and the spatially relative descriptors used herein interpreted accordingly. Similarly, the terms “upwardly”, “downwardly”, “vertical”, “horizontal” and the like are used herein for the purpose of explanation only unless specifically indicated otherwise.

[0094] Although the terms “first” and “second” may be used herein to describe various features/elements (including steps), these features/elements should not be limited by these terms, unless the context indicates otherwise. These terms may be used to distinguish one feature/element from another feature/element. Thus, a first feature/element discussed below could be termed a second feature/element, and similarly, a second feature/element discussed below could be termed a first feature/element without departing from the teachings of the present invention.

[0095] Throughout this specification and the claims which follow, unless the context requires otherwise, the word “comprise”, and variations such as “comprises” and “comprising” means various components can be co-jointly employed in the methods and articles (e.g., compositions and apparatuses including device and methods). For example, the term “comprising” will be understood to imply the inclusion of any stated elements or steps but not the exclusion of any other elements or steps.

[0096] As used herein in the specification and claims, including as used in the examples and unless otherwise expressly specified, all numbers may be read as if prefaced by the word “about” or “approximately,” even if the term does not expressly appear. The phrase “about” or “approximately” may be used when describing magnitude and/or position to indicate that the value and/or position described is within a reasonable expected range of values and/or positions. For example, a numeric value may have a value that is +/−0.1% of the stated value (or range of values), +/−1% of the stated value (or range of values), +/−2% of the stated value (or range of values), +/−5% of the stated value (or range of values), +/−10% of the stated value (or range of values), etc. Any numerical range recited herein is intended to include all sub-ranges subsumed therein.

[0097] Although various illustrative embodiments are described above, any of a number of changes may be made to various embodiments without departing from the scope of the invention as described by the claims. For example, the order in which various described method steps are performed may often be changed in alternative embodiments, and in other alternative embodiments one or more method steps may be skipped altogether. Optional features of various device and system embodiments may be included in some embodiments and not in others. Therefore, the foregoing description is provided primarily for exemplary purposes and should not be interpreted to limit the scope of the invention as it is set forth in the claims.

[0098] The examples and illustrations included herein show, by way of illustration and not of limitation, specific embodiments in which the subject matter may be practiced. As mentioned, other embodiments may be utilized and derived there from, such that structural and logical substitutions and changes may be made without departing from the scope of this disclosure. Such embodiments of the inventive subject matter may be referred to herein individually or collectively by the term “invention” merely for convenience and without intending to voluntarily limit the scope of this application to any single invention or inventive concept, if more than one is, in fact, disclosed. Thus, although specific embodiments have been illustrated and described herein, any arrangement calculated to achieve the same purpose may be substituted for the specific embodiments shown. This disclosure is intended to cover any and all adaptations or variations of various embodiments. Combinations of the above embodiments, and other embodiments not specifically described herein, will be apparent to those of skill in the art upon reviewing the above description.