Treatment of cardiac dysfunction

Abstract

Modulation, preferably inhibition, of neurosignaling of a cardiac-related sympathetic nerve in the extracardiac intrathoracic neural circuit is effective in stabilizing cardiac electrical and/or mechanical function, thereby providing ways of treating or preventing cardiac dysfunction such as arrhythmias.

Claims

1. A device for reversibly inhibiting neural activity of a subject's cardiac-related sympathetic nerve in the extracardiac intrathoracic neural circuit, the device comprising: at least one carousel electrode comprising a plurality of electrode contacts suitable for placement on or around the cardiac-related sympathetic nerve, and a voltage source or current source configured to apply a signal to each of the plurality of electrode contacts in a repeating cycle for generating a signal to be applied to the cardiac-related sympathetic nerve via the at least one carousel electrode, wherein the electrical signal is a kilohertz frequency alternating current (KHFAC) signal or a charge-balanced direct current signal comprising a cathodic pulse and an anodic pulse, the current of the cathodic pulse being between 0.1 mA and 10 mA, such that the signal reversibly inhibits the neural activity of the cardiac-related sympathetic nerve at the ansae subclavia or at a site along the paravertebral chain between the T1 and T2 ganglia to produce a physiological response in the subject, wherein the physiological response is a decrease in chronotropic, dromotropic, lusitropic and/or inotropic evoked responses.

2. The device of claim 1, wherein the electrical signal is a charge balanced direct current carousel (CBDCC) signal, or a hybrid of a KHFAC and CBDCC.

3. The device of claim 2, wherein the electrical signal comprises a DC ramp and a KHFAC waveform that commences during the DC ramp.

4. The device of claim 3, wherein the electrical signal comprises, sequentially, a DC ramp followed by a plateau and charge-balancing; a first AC waveform, wherein the amplitude of the waveform increases during the period the waveform is applied; and a second AC waveform having a lower frequency and/or lower amplitude than the first waveform.

5. The device of claim 2, further comprising a detection subsystem for detecting electrical activity of the heart, the detection subsystem comprising one or more electrical sensors for attachment to the heart, and upon detection of electrical activity of the heart indicative of cardiac dysfunction or abnormal heart rhythm, causing the electrical signal to be applied to the cardiac-related sympathetic nerve via the at least one carousel electrode.

6. The device of claim 1, wherein the cardiac-related sympathetic nerve is inhibited, unilaterally or bilaterally.

7. The device of claim 1, wherein the inhibition is a full block or a partial block.

8. The device of claim 1, wherein the at least one carousel electrode is in signaling contact with the cardiac-related sympathetic nerve.

9. The device of claim 1, wherein the KHFAC signal has a frequency between 2 kHz and 30 kHz.

10. The device of claim 1, wherein each electrode contact is coupled to its own current source or voltage source, and wherein the current source or voltage source is configured to vary the amplitude of the current applied to each of the plurality of electrode contacts independently of the other electrode contacts.

11. The device of claim 1, wherein the voltage source or current source is configured to apply the electrical signal periodically.

12. The device of claim 11, wherein the voltage source or current source is configured to apply the electrical signal in an on-off pattern.

13. A method of treating cardiac dysfunction in a subject, comprising: (i) implanting in the subject a device of claim 1; (ii) positioning the at least one carousel electrode of the device in signaling contact with the cardiac-related sympathetic nerve in the extracardiac intrathoracic neural circuit in the subject at the ansae subclavia or at a site along the paravertebral chain between the T1 and T2 ganglia; and optionally (iii) activating the device.

14. The method of claim 13, wherein the method is for treating heart failure, myocardial infarction and cardiac arrhythmias.

15. The method of claim 13, wherein the method is for treating or preventing ventricular arrhythmia.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram depicting the gross anatomic arrangement of the upper thoracic paravertebral chain (T1-T4) and associated mediastinal neural structures, including stellate and middle cervical (MCG) ganglia.

(2) FIGS. 2-7 demonstrate the application of the invention using kilohertz frequency alternating current (KHFAC). FIGS. 8-15 demonstrate the application of the invention using direct current (DC).

(3) FIG. 2A is a schematic diagram showing the experimental set up for the results shown in the FIGS. 2-5. KHFAC was delivered to the ansae subclavia in dogs (inset for FIG. 2A). Electrical stimulation (RSS) was applied to the stellate ganglion upstream of the ansae subclavia to activate sympathetic efferent projections to the heart.

(4) FIG. 2B shows the evoked cardiac responses to the stimulation of the left stellate ganglion (4 Hz; depicted by “ON” and “OFF”). Panels showing the following parameters over time (from bottom): heart rate (beats/min), left ventricular pressure (LVP; mmHg) and left ventricular contractility (as reflected in the changes in LV dP/dt; mmHg/s).

(5) FIG. 2C shows the evoked cardiac responses to KHFAC and RSS delivery. Panels show the following parameters over time (from bottom): left ventricular pressure (LVP; mmHg); heart rate (beats/min); left ventricular contractility (LV dP/dt; mmHg/s); stellate cardiac ganglion stimulation (RSS), KHFAC delivery at 5 kHz, 16 V, biphasic square wave). Box: onset response to KHFAC.

(6) FIG. 3A shows the percentage change in the heart rate over the initial 120 seconds after onset of KHFAC delivery at different frequencies: 5 kHz (Δ), 10 kHz (.Math.), 15 kHz (∘) and 20 kHz (.circle-solid.).

(7) FIG. 3B shows the percentage change in the left ventricular contractility (LV +dP/dt) over the initial 120 seconds after onset of KHFAC delivery at different frequencies: 5 kHz (Δ), 10 kHz (.Math.), 15 kHz (∘) and 20 kHz (.circle-solid.).

(8) FIG. 3C shows the percentage change in heart rate in response to RSS before (black bars) and during KHFAC delivery. KHFAC delivered at frequencies of 5 kHz, 10 kHz, 15 kHz and 20 kHz.

(9) FIG. 3D shows the percentage change in LV +dp/dt in response to RSS before (black bars) and during KHFAC delivery. KHFAC delivered at frequencies of 5 kHz, 10 kHz, 15 kHz and 20 kHz.

(10) FIG. 4 show effects of KHFAC delivered to the ansae on the RSS evoked changes in LV +dp/dt (FIG. 4A) and heart rate (FIG. 4B). Bars from left to right: before KHFAC delivery (RSS at 0.54 mA); RSS delivered during KHFAC (10 kHz, 15V); RSS delivered 10′, 23′ and 29′ after KHFAC termination. Last three bars indicate cardiac responses to increasing RSS stimulus intensity to 0.6 mA, 0.65 mA and 0.7 mA.

(11) FIG. 5A is a schematic diagram showing the experimental set up for the results shown in FIGS. 5-7 for evaluation of KHFAC. The schematic diagram depicts the gross anatomic arrangement of the porcine right-sided upper thoracic paravertebral chain (T1-T4) and the lower cervical paravertebral chain. SG=stellate ganglion. MCG=middle cervical ganglion. CPN=cardiopulmonary nerves. “X” depicts KHFAC delivery sites at the ansae sublavia and the “open circle” depicts KHFAC delivery sites at the T1-T2 paravertebral chain. Lightning bolts indicate RSS stimulation sites at the T3 paravertebral chain and at the C8-T1 paravertebral chain.

(12) FIG. 5B shows the evoked cardiac responses to KHFAC delivery to the ansae subclavia and RSS delivery at the T3 ganglion prior to and during KHFAC. Panels show the following parameters over time: (from bottom) electrocardiac diagram (ECG); heart rate (beats/min); left ventricular pressure (LVP; mmHg); left ventricular contractility (LV dP/dt; mmHg/s); stellate stimulation (RSS); KHFAC delivery (15 kHz, 15 Volts, biphasic square wave) to the ansae subclavia. Boxed: onset response.

(13) FIGS. 6A-6D show the percentage change in heart rate (FIGS. 6A and 6C) and the percentage change in left ventricular contractility (LV +dp/dt; FIGS. 6B and 6D), respectively, in response to the left-sided (LT3; FIGS. 6C and 6D) and right-sided stellate T3 (RT3; FIGS. 6A and 6B) paravertebral chain ganglion stimulation before, during and after KHFAC delivery to the T1-T2 paravertebral chain ganglion. * p<0.05 from control.

(14) FIG. 7 shows the percentage change in heart rate (Δ), percentage change in contractility (LV +dp/dt; B) and percentage change in activation-recovery interval (ARI; C) at KHFAC onset when delivered at varying frequencies (5 kHz to 20 kHz) and voltages (5 to 20 V).

(15) FIGS. 8-12 demonstrate the application of the invention using direct current (DC).

(16) FIGS. 8A and B shows the evoked cardiac responses when direct current (DC; A: 4-10-2, 6 mA/0.6 mA; B: 4-7-2, 6 mA/0.6 mA) was delivered to the ansae subclavia in a reactive (A) and a pre-emptive (B) manner. Panels from the bottom show the following parameters over time: heart rate (beats/min); left ventricular pressure (LVP; mmHg); left ventricular contractility (LV dp/dt; mmHg/s); right stellate ganglion stimulation (Grass); DC delivery.

(17) FIGS. 8C and 8D show the percentage of block of heart rate and contractility (dP/dt+), respectively, when DC was delivered at 3.0 mA and 6.0 mA. Black bars=pre-emptive. gray bars=reactive.

(18) FIG. 9 shows the percentage of block of the RSS induced changes in heart rate (FIG. 9A) and LV contractility (FIG. 9B) during DC delivery to the ansae subclavia at amplitudes ranging from 0 mA to 6 mA.

(19) FIG. 10 is a schematic diagram showing the experimental set-up for FIGS. 11-12, 14 and 15. The schematic diagram depicts the gross anatomic arrangement of the porcine right-sided upper thoracic paravertebral chain (T2-T4) and associated mediastinal neural structures, including stellate (SG) and middle cervical (MCG) ganglia. Four DC electrodes are coupled to the region between T1-T2 paravertebral chain ganglion, and they are arranged to deliver signals one after another in cycles (DC carousel; DCC). Arrows indicate stimulation sites at the T2 paravertebral chain and at the stellate ganglion (insert for FIG. 10).

(20) FIG. 10B shows an exemplary charged balanced biphasic DC pulse. In this interation, there is a 2 second ramp down to a 4 second plateau, with a two second ramp up to a current in the opposite direction that is ˜⅓ of the plateau current and maintained for ˜16 second. The critical factor is that charge delivery during the recharge phase balances that delivered during ramp and plateau phase.

(21) FIG. 10C shows an example of one cycle of charge balanced DC current delivery, in this case from four channel (node) electrode. In this interation, by the time node 4 has finished its plateau phase, the first node is available for re-stimulation, thus allowing for longer-duration charge balanced DC carousel (CBDCC) bioelectric modulation.

(22) FIG. 11 shows the evoked cardiac response to the T2 paravertebral chain ganglion stimulation before, during and after DC delivery to the T1-T2 paravertebral chain ganglion. Panels show the following parameters over time: (from bottom) left ventricular pressure (LVP; mmHg); left ventricular contractility (LV dp/dt; mmHg/s); heart rate (beats/min); DC delivery (2.5 mA, 2-4-2 1 cycle); RSS stimulation of the right T2 ganglion.

(23) FIG. 12A shows the percentage change in heart rate, left ventricular contractility (LV dP/dt+) and activation-recovery interval (ARI) relative to the baseline in response to T2 stimulation (black bars) or in response to one cycle of charge balanced DC current (grey bars).

(24) FIGS. 12B-D shows the percentages change T2 evoked changes in heart rate (B), left ventricular contractility (LV dP/dt+; C) and ventricular activation-recovery interval (ARI; D) at different amplitudes of DC current, all delivered as CBDCC. Negative values indicate suppression of T2 evoked response. Data for various animals are shown: DC6 (.circle-solid.), DC8 (∘), DC10 (.Math.), DC11 (Δ), DC12 (.square-solid.), DC13 (□), DC14 (.diamond-solid.).

(25) FIG. 13 shows the MRI image of a porcine heart at 6 weeks following induced MI.

(26) FIG. 14 shows the effects of T2 stimulation on heart rate (Δ), LV +dp/dt (B) and activation recovery interval of the ventricle (ARI, C) prior to (T2 Pre), during CBDCC, and following CBDCC (T2 Post). * p.0.02 vs T2.

(27) FIG. 15A shows ventricular arrhythmia inducibility of the chronic MI model pigs. Left bar: baseline; right bar: during CBDCC delivery. * P<0.05.

(28) FIG. 15B shows the effects of CBDCC on S2 effective refractory period in the chronic MI model pigs. P<0.05 vs baseline.

MODES FOR CARRYING OUT THE INVENTION

(29) Study I—KHFAC

(30) This study investigated the evoked cardiac responses to the delivery of KHFAC at a nodal intervention point in dogs. The communication between stellate and middle cervical ganglia, namely the ansae subclavia, was targeted for neural block, and the experimental set up is shown in FIG. 2A. Stellate ganglion simulation (RSS) was delivered by Grass S88 Stimulator at 4 Hz. KHFAC was delivery to the ansae subclavia by a voltage controlled block (Stanford Research Systems DS 345 waveform generator). Cardiac readouts, indicative of functional sympathetic inputs to the heart, included heart rate (beats/min), ventricular contractility (+dP/dt), and ventricular pressure (LVP) were recorded.

(31) The results are shown in FIGS. 2-5b. KHFAC delivery to the ansae subclavia successfully evoked changes in regional cardiac function.

(32) The stimulation of the stellate ganglion (RSS) led to an increase in cardiac contractility and heart rate (FIG. 2B). The increase in contractility and heart rate was reduced by KHFAC delivery (5 kHz, 16 V, biphasic square wave) to the ansae subclavia (FIG. 2C). During KHFAC delivery, the cardiac responses to sympathetic efferent activation were blunted.

(33) The sympathetic neurons also demonstrated a delayed recovery (FIGS. 2C and 4) showing that a small duration of KHFAC delivery could induce prolonged block of up to 30 minutes.

(34) A clear dose response was also identified in FIGS. 3 and 4 with blocking levels related to frequency and intensity among other factors.

(35) KHFAC evoked a transient sympatho-excitation at onset that was voltage-dependent and inversely related to frequency (see FIG. 2C, 3A and 3B), but was nonetheless efficacious in reducing sympathetic activation after the initial onset phase (FIGS. 3C, 3D and 4).

(36) Thus, this study demonstrates that sympathetic signals to the heart could be blocked by applying electrical signals, e.g. KHFAC, to the ansae subclavia.

(37) Study 2—KHFAC

(38) This study investigated the reversibility of cardiac responses to KHFAC delivery to either the ansae subclavia or the T1-T2 paravertebral chain ganglion in pigs.

(39) The experimental set up is outlined in FIG. 5A. KHFAC (15 kHz, 15 Volts, biphasic square wave) was delivered at either the T1-T2 paravertebral chain ganglion or ansae subclavia. Electrical simulation to activate sympathetic efferents was delivered at either the T3 paravertebral chain or the C8-T1 paravertebral chain (location of stellate ganglion).

(40) KHFAC Delivery to Ansae Subclavia

(41) The effects of KHFAC delivery to the ansae subclavia are shown in FIG. 5B. Referring to FIG. 5B, stellate stimulation led to an increase in cardiac function (increase in heart rate, increase in left ventricular pressure and increase in left ventricular contractility). This increase was reduced by KHFAC delivery to the ansae subclavia. During KHFAC delivery, further stellate stimulation resulted in minimum cardiac responses.

(42) KHFAC Delivery to T1-T2 Paravertebral Chain Ganglion

(43) The effects of KHFAC delivery to the T1-T2 paravertebral chain ganglion are shown in FIG. 6. It can be seen that chronotropic (FIGS. 6A and 6C) and inotropic (FIGS. 6B and 6D) functions in response to T3 stimulation was significantly reduced during KHFAC delivery, and the reductions in evoked responses reversed after KHFAC delivery.

(44) Onset Response

(45) The onset response following KHFAC was further investigated. In particular, the chronotropic, inotropic and dromotropic responses were measured with KHFAC delivery at varying frequencies and voltages, and the results are shown in FIG. 7.

(46) It was considered that KHFAC onset response reflects transient activation of underlying nerve tracts prior to block induction. It seems that, for the onset response, lower frequency ranges with higher intensities generate bigger onset responses. The onset response may be minimized by modifying parameters and studying the effect, for example by (1) lowering the frequency, lowering intensity and changing the waveform, or (2) ramp titration starting from high frequency-low intensity to target levels. For example, Ackermann et al. [47] demonstrated that onset response may be completely neutralized by using a brief DC nerve block prior to application of the KHFAC signal. The use of KHFAC in combination with a DC nerve block is also contemplated for the present invention.

(47) Thus, this study demonstrates the reversibility of the block of the sympathetic signals to the heart by applying electrical signals, e.g. KHFAC, to either the ansae subclavia or the T1-T2 paravertebral chain ganglion.

(48) Study 3—DC

(49) This study investigates the evoked cardiac responses to DC delivery at a nodal intervention point. This study is set up in a similar way as the previous studies, except DC was delivered to the ansae subclavia. This study was done in both canine and porcine models.

(50) The results are shown in FIG. 8. These experiments were done in the anesthetized canine model. It can be seen that DC block was effective in a reactive and pre-emptive manner. In particular, FIG. 8A shows that DC block was effective when used in a reactive manner. When DC was delivered during right stellate stimulation (RSS), the increase in the chronotropic and inotropic functions in response to RSS stimulation was reduced during the period of DC delivery.

(51) FIG. 8B shows that DC block was effective when used in a pre-emptive manner. When DC was delivered at the onset of RSS stimulation, the increase in the chronotropic and inotropic functions in response to RSS stimulation was not achieved until after DC delivery was removed.

(52) Interestingly, the percentages block of chronotropic (FIG. 8C) and inotropic (FIG. 8D) responses were highly effective for DC pre-emptive use, with 80% block at 3 mA, and increasing to nearly 100% at 6 mA, for both inotropic and chronotropic responses.

(53) Thus, this study has established for the first time that neural block of cardiac sympathetic regulation at a nodal intervention was effective for reactive, and particularly effective for pre-emptive, treatments of ventricular arrhythmias.

(54) Study 4—DC

(55) This study investigated the cardiac responses to DC delivery with increasing voltages. These experiments were done in the anesthetized canine model. The results are shown in FIG. 9.

(56) FIG. 9 shows that increasing the DC voltage/current amplitude increases the percentage block of chronotropic (FIG. 9A) and inotropic (FIG. 9B) responses.

(57) Therefore, increasing current output was able to produce substantially greater DC block. As a corollary, the degree of block can be graded by selecting the current intensity.

(58) Study 5—DCC

(59) This study investigated the cardiac responses to delivery of DC carousel (DCC). The experimental set up is shown in FIG. 10. DC was delivered to the T 1-T2 paravertebral chain ganglion and ganglion stimulation was delivered at the T2 paravertebral chain and stellate ganglion (SG).

(60) In Yorkshire pigs a median sternotomy was performed, the right thoracic paravertebral chain isolated and a 56-electrode sock placed over the ventricular epicardium. For charged balanced DC (CBDC), a 4-node CBDCC carbon black coated platinum electrode was placed under the T1-T2 segment (FIG. 10) and connected to individual DC current sources. T2 electrical stimulation with and without CBDCC, delivered at varying current intensities, was used to determine local block efficacy. Cardiac readouts, indicative of functional sympathetic inputs to the heart, included activation recovery interval (ARI), heart rate and left ventricular (LV) +dP/dt were recorded.

(61) The inventors noted that, with this design, a minimum of four nodes are required for maintained DCC block because of technical issues with charge-balance. FIGS. 10B and 10C show an illustrative waveform for a single node (FIG. 10B) or for the stimulation protocol for a 4 node CBDCC stimulation. FIG. 10C reflects a single cycle through the 4 nodes which can then be linked serially to maintain DC block.

(62) The results are shown in FIGS. 11-12. CBDCC was effective in modulating sympathetic efferent projections to the heart.

(63) FIG. 11 shows the cardiac responses to DCC delivery to the T1-T2 ganglion. Referring to FIG. 11, stellate stimulation led to an increase in cardiac function (increase in heart rate, left ventricular pressure and left ventricular contractility). This increase was reduced by DCC delivery to the T1-T2 ganglion. Interestingly, once DCC delivery was removed, baseline cardiac function resumed.

(64) It was also found that increasing the DCC voltage/current amplitude increases the block of chronotropic (FIG. 12B), inotropic (FIG. 12C) and dromotropic (FIG. 12D) responses. Note also that CBDCC had minimal impact on basal cardiac function (FIG. 12A, grey bars).

(65) Conclusion

(66) This study confirmed that nodal intervention by DCC block at the upper thoracic paravertebral chain, (namely T1-T2) is highly effective in reducing the sympathetic regulation of cardiac function. Interestingly, the efficacy of a DCC block is current dependent, and because of this, each node for the DC block can be tuned to a desired degree of block by adjusting the current.

(67) T1 stimulation proximal (upstream) to the block resulted in maintained sympathetic response.

(68) Notably, the effects of DCC (short-term) on the nerve are reversible, so it does not alter basal cardiac function.

(69) Study 6—DCC in Porcine Chronic MI model

(70) This study investigated the efficacy of charge balanced direct current (CBDC), applied to the T1-T2 region of the paravertebral chain in a carousel arrangement (CBDCC), to impact the ventricular arrhythmia potential post-myocardial infarction (MI).

(71) This study used a porcine chronic myocardial infarction (MI) model (n=7). In the porcine models, MI was induced beyond the first diagonal in the left anterior descending coronary artery by microsphere injection. FIG. 13 shows a representative MRI illustrating the myocardial infarct zone so created. Terminal procedures were performed (8-16 weeks) thereafter. At termination, following a mid-sternal thoracotomy, a 56-epicardial-electrode sock was placed over both ventricles and a quadripolar carousel electrode positioned underlying the right T1-T2 paravertebral chain. The efficacy of CBDC carousel (CBDCC) block was assessed by stimulating the right T3 paravertebral ganglion with and without CBDCC. Ventricular tachycardia (VT) inducibility to a S1-S2 pacing protocol was then assessed at baseline (BL) and repeated under >50% CBDCC blockade of functional sympathetic efferent projections to the heart.

(72) The results are shown in the table below and in FIGS. 14-15.

(73) FIG. 14 illustrates the efficacy of CBDCC to reduce sympathetic inputs to the heart as reflected in the blunted responses to T2 stimulation for heart rate (FIG. 14A), LV +dp/dt (FIG. 14B) and ventricular activation recovery interval (ARI, FIG. 14C). As with normal animals, the effects of CBDCC were readily reversible as is evident in the T2 responses evoked post DC block (T2 post, all three panels, FIG. 14 A-C).

(74) As shown in FIG. 15A, VT was induced at baseline in all animals. Only one animal was re-inducible for VT with simultaneous CBDCC application (p<0.002 from baseline).

(75) As shown FIG. 15B, S2 effective refractory period (ERP) was prolonged with DCC (323±26 ms) compared to baseline (271±32 ms) (p<0.05).

(76) Table 1 shows that application of the DCC block resulted in reduced contractility and left ventricle end systolic pressure in some pigs but overall did not significantly alter basal cardiac function. This includes ARI which was not altered compared to baseline.

(77) TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Cardiac function in in porcine chronic MI model with and without DCC block. Baseline DC HR dP/dt+ LVESP HR dP/dt+ LVESP MI 01 56 1744 142 67 1764 137 MI 02 75 1346 134 72 713 62 MI 04 65 1419 104 86 1182 89 MI 05 64 1350 119 61 819 66 MI 06 64 1359 106 75 1383 105 MI 07 88 890 80 91 490 86

(78) In summary, axonal modulation of the T1-T2 paravertebral chain with CBDCC significantly reduced ventricular arrhythmias in a chronic MI model by 83%. CBDCC altered S2 ERP, without altering baseline ARI, resulting in improved electrical stability.

(79) Conclusion

(80) These studies demonstrated that intervention (e.g. blocking) of the (e.g.) efferent sympathetic nervous system (particularly at the T1-T2 paravertebral ganglia and ansae subclavia) by electrical signals is useful for treating or preventing cardiac dysfunction such as ventricular arrhythmias post-myocardial infarction. The electrical signals reversibly block the efferent system to heart, thereby overriding sympathetic control and affecting ventricular excitability and contractility. This leads to a reduction in arrhythmia potential.

(81) Advantageously, the effects of this approach on other cardiac function is at a minimum. Furthermore, as soon as the electrical signals are removed, the block ceases and the baseline cardiac function in the animal model resumes.

(82) The electrical signals can be delivered in the form of DC or KHFAC. In these studies DC was more effective in producing block with a much lower onset effect. KHFAC, which in contrast produces a high onset effect. Increasing current output was able to produce substantially greater DC block. For sympathetic control, the graded conduction block induced by KHFAC or CBDCC is reversible and scalable. Owing to the KHFAC onset response, CBDCC may be the preferred methodology for arrhythmia management, although there are ways to minimize the onset response.

(83) Finally, in addition to dogs, pig studies revealed that the same efficacy of block was obtained when KHFAC was applied to T1-T2 sympathetic ganglia (when T3 was stimulated). The T1-T2 segment of the paravertebral chain is a principal nexus point for modulation of sympathetic projections to the heart.

(84) This suggests that the invention could be put into practice at the very location that surgeons currently perform denervation of T1-T4 sympathetic ganglia.

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