ELECTROLYTE COMPOSITIONS

Abstract

Disclosed are electrolyte compositions for electrochemical devices, where the electrolyte compositions comprise a microemulsion and where the microemulsion comprises an aqueous phase and a water-immiscible phase. Also disclosed are microemulsion electrolyte compositions for electrically rechargeable electrochemical energy storage devices, including ion batteries (such as lithium ion, sodium ion, magnesium ion, calcium ion, and aluminium ion batteries), redox flow batteries and supercapacitors.

Claims

1. An electrically rechargeable electrochemical energy storage device comprising an electrolyte composition wherein the electrolyte composition comprises a microemulsion, and wherein the microemulsion comprises an aqueous phase and a water-immiscible phase.

2. The device of claim 1, wherein the aqueous phase is a continuous phase.

3. The device of claim 2, wherein the water-immiscible phase is a dispersed phase.

4. The device of claim 1, wherein the microemulsion is a bicontinuous microemulsion.

5. The device of claim 1, wherein the microemulsion further comprises a dissolved salt.

6. The device of claim 5, wherein the dissolved salt is selected from the group consisting of: a lithium salt, a sodium salt, a potassium salt, a magnesium salt, a calcium salt, and an aluminium salt.

7. The device of claim 6, wherein the concentration of the dissolved salt is between 0.001 mol/kg and 10 mol/kg.

8. The device of claim 1, wherein the microemulsion further comprises one or more redox active organic species.

9. The device of claim 8, wherein the redox active organic species are dissolved in the water-immiscible phase or aqueous phase.

10. The device of claim 8, wherein the redox active organic species are dissolved in the water-immiscible phase.

11. The device of claim 1, wherein the water-immiscible phase comprises an organic solvent.

12. The device of any claim 11, wherein the organic solvent is selected from the group consisting of aliphatic solvents; aromatic solvents; halogenated solvents; substantially water immiscible ketone solvents; substantially water immiscible ester solvents; or a combination thereof.

13. The device of claim 1, wherein the microemulsion further comprises a surfactant, a co-surfactant and/or co-solvent.

14. The device of claim 1, further comprising an anodic electrode and a cathodic electrode and optionally a current collector, wherein at least a portion of the surface of one or more of the anodic electrode, cathodic electrode and current collector is substantially hydrophobic.

15. The device of claim 14, wherein the portion of the surface of one or more of the anodic electrode, cathodic electrode and current collector is non-metallic or conductive carbon or a conductive polymer.

16. The device of claim 14 or 15, further including an ion permeable separator located between the cathodic electrode and anodic electrode.

17. The device of claim 1, wherein the cell voltage is greater than 1.23 V.

18-22. (canceled)

23. A method for using an electrically rechargeable electrochemical energy storage device comprising connecting the electrically rechargeable electrochemical energy storage device to a load and supplying a charge to the load, wherein the device comprises an electrolyte composition, wherein the electrolyte composition comprises a microemulsion, and wherein the microemulsion comprises an aqueous phase and a water-immiscible phase.

24. An electrolyte composition when used in an electrically rechargeable electrochemical energy storage device, wherein the electrolyte composition comprises a microemulsion, wherein the microemulsion comprises an aqueous phase and a water-immiscible phase.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

[0089] FIG. 1 is a cyclic voltammogram of ME1, scan speed 100 mV.Math.s.sup.−1.

[0090] FIG. 2 is a cyclic voltammogram of ME2, scan speed 100 mV.Math.s.sup.−1.

[0091] FIG. 3 is a cyclic voltammogram of ME3, scan speed 100 mV.Math.s.sup.−1.

[0092] FIG. 4 is a cyclic voltammogram of ME4, scan speed 100 mV.Math.s.sup.−1.

[0093] FIG. 5 is a cyclic voltammogram of ME5, scan speed 100 mV.Math.s.sup.−1.

[0094] FIG. 6 is a cyclic voltammogram of ME6, scan speed 100 mV.Math.s.sup.−1.

[0095] FIG. 7 is a cyclic voltammogram of ME10, scan speed 100 mV.Math.s.sup.−1.

[0096] FIG. 8 is a cyclic voltammogram of ME11, scan speed 100 mV.Math.s.sup.−1.

[0097] FIG. 9 is a cyclic voltammogram of ME12, scan speed 100 mV.Math.s.sup.−1.

[0098] FIG. 10 is a cyclic voltammogram of ME13, scan speed 100 mV.Math.s.sup.−1.

[0099] FIG. 11 is a cyclic voltammogram of ME2b, scan speed 100 mV.Math.s.sup.−1.

[0100] FIG. 12 is a cyclic voltammogram of 0.1 M aqueous solution of KCl, scan speed 100 mV.Math.s.sup.−1.

[0101] FIG. 13 is a cyclic voltammogram of ferrocene in ME1, scan speed 100 mV.Math.s.sup.−1.

[0102] FIG. 14 is a cyclic voltammogram of ferrocene in ME2, scan speed 100 mV.Math.s.sup.−1.

[0103] FIG. 15 is a cyclic voltammogram of ferrocene in ME3, scan speed 100 mV.Math.s.sup.−1.

[0104] FIG. 16 is a cyclic voltammogram of ferrocene in ME4, scan speed 100 mV.Math.s.sup.−1.

[0105] FIG. 17 is a cyclic voltammogram of ferrocene in ME5, scan speed 100 mV.Math.s.sup.−1.

[0106] FIG. 18 is a cyclic voltammogram of ferrocene in ME6, scan speed 100 mV.Math.s.sup.−1.

[0107] FIG. 19 is a cyclic voltammogram of ferrocene in ME10, scan speed 100 mV.Math.s.sup.−1.

[0108] FIG. 20 is a cyclic voltammogram of ferrocene in ME11, scan speed 100 mV.Math.s.sup.−1.

[0109] FIG. 21 is a cyclic voltammogram of ferrocene in ME12, scan speed 100 mV.Math.s.sup.−1.

[0110] FIG. 22 is a cyclic voltammogram of ferrocene in ME13, scan speed 100 mV.Math.s.sup.−1.

[0111] FIG. 23 is a cyclic voltammogram of ferrocene in ME2b, scan speed 100 mV.Math.s.sup.−1.

[0112] FIG. 24 is a chronopotentiogram of a magnesium ion battery comprising 0.5 mol.Math.dm.sup.−3 MgSO.sub.4 in MEL

[0113] FIG. 25 is a chronopotentiogram of a sodium ion battery comprising 0.1 mol.Math.dm.sup.−3 NaCl in ME2.

[0114] FIG. 26 is a chronopotentiogram of a lithium ion battery comprising 0.1 mol.Math.dm.sup.−3 LiCl in ME2.

[0115] FIG. 27 is a chronopotentiogram of an aluminium ion battery comprising 0.1 mol.Math.dm.sup.−3 AlCl.sub.3 in ME2.

[0116] FIG. 28 is a chronopotentiogram of a magnesium ion battery with an aqueous electrolyte.

[0117] FIG. 29 is a chronopotentiogram of a redox flow battery comprising an ME2-based electrolyte described in Example 6.

[0118] FIG. 30 is a charge-discharge curve of Cell 1 after 30 charge/discharge cycles.

[0119] FIG. 31 shows the charge capacity (mAh/g), discharge capacity (mAh/g) and coulombic efficiency over repeated charge/discharge cycles of Cell 1.

[0120] FIG. 32 is a charge-discharge curve of Cell 1 after 30 charge/discharge cycles, tested at 1 A/g.

[0121] FIG. 33 shows the charge capacity (mAh/g), discharge capacity (mAh/g) and coulombic efficiency over repeated charge/discharge cycles of Cell 1, tested at 1 A/g.

[0122] FIG. 34 is a charge-discharge curve of Cell 2 after 90 charge/discharge cycles FIG. 35 shows the charge capacity (mAh/g), discharge capacity (mAh/g) and coulombic efficiency over repeated charge/discharge cycles of Cell 2.

[0123] FIG. 36 is a charge-discharge curve of Cell 3 after 40 charge/discharge cycles.

[0124] FIG. 37 shows the charge capacity (mAh/g), discharge capacity (mAh/g) and coulombic efficiency over repeated charge/discharge cycles of Cell 3.

[0125] FIG. 38 is a charge-discharge curve of Cell 4 after 50 and 100 charge/discharge cycles FIG. 39 shows the charge capacity (mAh/g), discharge capacity (mAh/g) and coulombic efficiency over repeated charge/discharge cycles of Cell 4.

[0126] FIG. 40 is a charge-discharge curve of Cell 4 after 750 charge/discharge cycles FIG. 41 shows the charge capacity (mAh/g), discharge capacity (mAh/g) and coulombic efficiency over repeated charge/discharge cycles of Cell 4 for charge/discharge 750 cycles.

[0127] FIG. 42 shows the charge capacity (mAh/g), discharge capacity (mAh/g) and coulombic efficiency over repeated charge/discharge cycles of Cell 5.

[0128] FIG. 43 is a cyclic voltammogram of Cell 5 (V.sub.2O.sub.5 electrode).

[0129] FIG. 44 is a cyclic voltammogram of Cell 5 (TiO.sub.2 electrode).

[0130] FIG. 45 is a cyclic voltammogram of Cell 6 (TiO.sub.2 electrode).

[0131] FIG. 46 shows charge-discharge curves of the supercapacitor of Example 8 for charge-discharge cycles 495-500.

[0132] FIG. 47 shows the charge capacity and discharge capacity (mAh/g) of the supercapacitor of Example 8 over repeated cycles.

[0133] FIG. 48 shows the coulombic efficiency of the supercapacitor of Example 8 over repeated cycles.

DEFINITIONS

[0134] Unless specifically defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein shall be taken to have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art (for example, in materials science and chemistry).

[0135] It is intended that reference to a range of numbers disclosed herein (e.g. 1 to 10) also incorporates reference to all related numbers within that range (e.g. 1, 1.1, 2, 3, 3.9, 4, 5, 6, 6.5, 7, 8, 9 and 10) and also any range of rational numbers within that range (for example 2 to 8, 1.5 to 5.5 and 3.1 to 4.7) and, therefore, all sub-ranges of all ranges expressly disclosed herein are expressly disclosed. These are only examples of what is specifically intended and all possible combinations of numerical values between the lowest value and the highest value enumerated are to be considered to be expressly stated in this application in a similar manner.

[0136] The term “and/or”, e.g., “X and/or Y” shall be understood to mean either “X and Y” or “X or Y” and shall be taken to provide explicit support for both meanings or for either meaning.

[0137] Throughout this specification the word “comprise”, or variations such as “comprises” or “comprising”, will be understood to imply the inclusion of a stated element, integer or step, or group of elements, integers or steps, but not the exclusion of any other element, integer or step, or group of elements, integers or steps i.e. including but limited only to.

[0138] Throughout this specification, unless specifically stated otherwise or the context requires otherwise, reference to a single step, composition of matter, group of steps or group of compositions of matter shall be taken to encompass one and a plurality (i.e. one or more) of those steps, compositions of matter, groups of steps or group of compositions of matter.

[0139] The term “cyclic voltammetry” refers to a type of potentiodynamic electrochemical measurement. To obtain a cyclic voltammogram, the voltage is varied in a solution and the change in current is measured with respect to the change in voltage. It is a specific type of voltammetry used for studying the redox properties of chemicals and interfacial structures.

[0140] The term “electrochemical window” or “electrochemical stability window” of an electrolyte refers to the voltage range between which the electrolyte is not substantially oxidised or reduced. For example, the electrochemical stability window of water is the difference between the potential at which water is reduced to hydrogen (H.sub.2), and at which water is oxidised to oxygen (O.sub.2). Electrochemical stability may be measured or described in terms of a cyclic voltammetry measurement, in which the electrochemical stability window is the potential difference between the onset potential (the potential at which the current begins to rise or fall) of each of the cathodic and anodic reactions

[0141] The term “immiscible”, with reference to two or more materials, means that a material will not dissolve or combine with another material. With reference to immiscible liquids in biphasic systems such as the microemulsions described herein, “immiscible” means that the liquids are insoluble with each other, or are so sparingly soluble in each other that for all practical purposes the liquids are conventionally considered to be insoluble with each other. When two immiscible liquids are combined in a system, it will form a biphasic system of immiscible liquids.

[0142] A microemulsion is a thermodynamically stable mixture of two immiscible liquid phases. Microemulsions can be “oil-in-water”, “water-in-oil”, or “bicontinuous”; these terms which define a microemulsion structure are well known in the art. In oil-in-water microemulsions, a water-immiscible phase is dispersed in a continuous aqueous phase. In water-in-oil microemulsions, an aqueous phase is dispersed in a continuous water-immiscible phase. In bicontinuous microemulsions, an aqueous phase and a water-immiscible phase are each interconnected and interspersed throughout the mixture.

[0143] In this specification, the terms “water” and “oil” (e.g. as used in reference to oil in water microemulsions and water in oil microemulsions) are understood to represent the aqueous phase and the water-immiscible phase. The term “water-immiscible phase” is used to describe any liquid that is immiscible with the aqueous phase. “Water phase” and “aqueous phase”, as used herein, may be used interchangeably.

[0144] As used herein, the terms “active species” and “electrochemically active species” mean compounds (including charged compounds, neutral compounds, radicals and the like) that are reactants of an electrochemical reaction. The reactions of electrochemically active species are, at least in part, responsible for the generation of a charge which flows within an electrochemical cell and as a result are responsible for the generation of an electric current.

[0145] The term “redox active organic species” means an organic electrochemically active species that undergoes reduction or oxidation in an electrochemical reaction. The reaction of redox active organic species are, at least in part, responsible for the generation of a charge which flows within an electrochemical cell and as a result are responsible for the generation of an electric current. See, for example: 3. Winsberg, T. Hagemann, T. Janoschka, M. D. Hager, U. S. Schubert, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2017, 56, 686; P. Leung, F. C. Walsh et al., Journal of Power Sources, 2017, 360, 243-283; X. Wei, et al., ACS Energy Lett. 2017, 2, 9, 2187-2204.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0146] The present invention is predicated, at least in part, on 1) the surprising discovery that microemulsions which comprise an aqueous phase have an electrochemical stability window which is greater than that of bulk water, i.e. greater than 1.23 V, and/or 2) the surprising discovery that microemulsions, in which redox reactions of electrochemically active species occur in the water-immiscible (and substantially non-conductive) phase, enhance charge conductivity such that the microemulsions are able to conduct charge to an electrode and generate an electrical current.

[0147] The inventors have further shown that the microemulsion electrolyte compositions of the present invention may be used as electrolytes in an electrochemical cell. The microemulsion electrolyte compositions are able to support electrochemical redox reactions which generate a potential difference of greater than 1.23 V.

[0148] Accordingly, the present invention relates to the new use and application of microemulsions as electrolytes for electrochemical cells, and, more specifically, electrochemical energy storage devices (EESDs). The present invention further relates to new microemulsion electrolyte compositions which are adapted for use, configured for use, useful, or suitable for use, in electrochemical cells.

[0149] Microemulsions have a micro-heterogeneous liquid biphasic structure, which, at the macroscopic level, appears homogenous. The aqueous and water-immiscible phases of the microemulsion are immiscible at the desired operating temperature (which is usually at or around room temperature). Microemulsions are thermodynamically stable, and therefore are able to form spontaneously (without application of energy), and do not separate out into their constituent phases over time once formed. Therefore, the electrochemical characteristics of microemulsions are also constant and persist over time. As described herein, microemulsions yield surprising electrochemical properties compared to the materials of each phase in their bulk state.

[0150] It should be emphasised that ‘emulsions’ or ‘emulsified electrolytes’ are very different to microemulsions, despite similar nomenclature. Emulsions are thermodynamically unstable (kinetically stable) mixtures of immiscible liquids. This means that, in contrast to microemulsions, the two immiscible phases of an emulsion will separate out over time.

[0151] The microemulsion electrolyte composition comprises an aqueous phase and a water-immiscible phase.

[0152] Preferably, the water-immiscible phase is dispersed in the aqueous phase, and the aqueous phase is a continuous phase (i.e. the microemulsion is an “oil-in-water” microemulsion). Alternatively, but still preferably, the water-immiscible phase and the aqueous phase are bicontinuous. In a less preferred embodiment, the microemulsion may be a water-in-oil microemulsion (i.e. the water-immiscible phase is a continuous phase and the aqueous phase is a dispersed phase).

[0153] Suitable solvents for the water-immiscible phase of the microemulsion electrolyte composition include a water-immiscible solvent or a combination of two or more water-immiscible solvents. Water-immiscible organic solvents, and mixtures thereof, are particularly suitable. By way of example only, a non-limiting list of solvents that are suitable for the water-immiscible phase of the microemulsion electrolyte compositions include aliphatic solvents (e.g. cyclic and non-cyclic, branched and non-branched alkanes, such as hexane, cyclohexane and petroleum ether, alkenes, alkynes); aromatic solvents (e.g. benzene, toluene, p-xylene, 1,2-dichlorobenzene); halogenated solvents (e.g. dichloromethane, chloroform, dichloroethane); ether solvents (e.g. diethyl ether, diphenyl ether); ketone solvents, such as acetophenone; esters, such as ethyl benzoate, ethyl acetate; or a combination thereof.

[0154] A preferred solvent for the aqueous phase of the microemulsion electrolyte composition is water. Alternative aqueous phases include combinations of water and water-miscible solvents, such as methanol and ethanol. Clearly, the aqueous phase of the microemulsion electrolyte composition must be immiscible with the water-immiscible phase.

[0155] The relative proportions of the aqueous phase and the water-immiscible phase in the microemulsion electrolyte composition are naturally limited by the overall thermodynamic stability of the mixture of components that make up the microemulsion electrolyte composition (e.g. aqueous phase, water-immiscible phase, and the presence of any other compounds such as amphiphiles, salts and electrochemically active species). There are natural limitations on the relative proportions of each phase in which it is thermodynamically favourable for the composition to exist as a microemulsion. There are further natural limitations on the relative proportions of each phase to achieve an oil-in-water microemulsion or a bicontinuous microemulsion. The relative proportions of each phase may be determined theoretically, or by routine experimentation by a person skilled in the art.

[0156] For the microemulsion electrolyte compositions of the present invention, the relative proportions of the aqueous phase and water-immiscible phase include any and all proportions and ranges thereof in which a microemulsion is formed. As oil-in-water and bicontinuous microemulsion systems are preferred, the preferred proportions of the aqueous phase and water immiscible phase are those that yield oil-in-water and bicontinuous microemulsions.

[0157] A factor for determining preferred relative proportions of the aqueous phase and water-immiscible phase is an aim of maximising the concentration of the dissolved electrochemically active species. Where the electrochemically active species is dissolved in the water-immiscible phase, maximising the proportion of water-immiscible phase in the microemulsion electrolyte composition will maximise the concentration of active species in the composition, and thereby maximise energy density. Similarly, where the active species are dissolved in the aqueous phase, maximising the proportion of the aqueous phase in the microemulsion electrolyte composition will maximise the concentration of active species.

[0158] In some embodiments, the microemulsion electrolyte composition comprises between about 1% and 99% water by weight of the microemulsion, more preferably between about 10% and 99% water by weight of the microemulsion, more preferably between about 20% and 99% water by weight of the microemulsion.

[0159] Microemulsion electrolyte compositions may be prepared with a high water content or with a low water content.

[0160] For microemulsions with higher proportion of aqueous phase (i.e. greater than about 75% by weight), and low proportion of water-immiscible phase (i.e. less than about 10% by weight) the electrochemical stability window is significantly greater than bulk water, and enables electrochemical reactions with potentials beyond the electrochemical stability window of an aqueous environment.

[0161] For microemulsions with lower water content (i.e. less than about 50% by weight), these microemulsions are particularly useful in electrochemical cells where the electrochemically active species are dissolved in the water-immiscible phase. Microemulsion electrolyte compositions with low water content are desirably not water-in-oil compositions, and are more preferably either bicontinuous or oil-in-water (where feasible). Water-in-oil microemulsions that have been tested by the inventors have low conductivity, or are non-conductive, and are therefore unsuitable as electrolyte compositions for electrochemical cells.

[0162] In embodiments where the microemulsion electrolyte composition comprises an oil-in-water microemulsion, the microemulsion electrolyte composition preferably comprises between about 80% and about 99% water by weight of the composition.

[0163] In embodiments where the microemulsion electrolyte composition comprises a bicontinuous microemulsion, the microemulsion electrolyte composition preferably comprises between about 20% and about 80% water by weight of the composition.

[0164] Another factor for determining preferred relative proportions of the aqueous phase and water-immiscible phase is the aim of maximising charge conductivity. Conductivity of the microemulsion electrolyte composition is predominantly provided by the aqueous phase, and therefore microemulsion electrolyte compositions in which the aqueous phase is a continuous phase (i.e. oil-in-water and bicontinuous microemulsions) are preferred.

[0165] The conductivity of the aqueous phase enables electrochemical redox reactions to take place in substantially non-conductive water-immiscible phases. For example, where the water-immiscible phase is an organic solvents such as an aliphatic or aromatic solvent, the water-immiscible phase of the microemulsion electrolyte compositions is substantially non-conductive. The electrochemical redox reaction that is observed to occur within the water-immiscible phase (see, for example, Example 4 below) is facilitated by the conductivity of the aqueous phase.

[0166] The aqueous phase may further comprise added dissolved salts to provide ions for the electrolyte composition. The dissolved salts may be selected from the group including Group 1 salts, Group 2 salts, transition metal salts, aluminium salts, or a combination thereof. Examples of dissolved salts include but are not limited to LiCl, NaCl, KCl, LiOH, NaOH, KOH, MgSO.sub.4, MgCl.sub.2, Zn(NO.sub.3).sub.2, and AlCl.sub.3. The aqueous phase may include dissolved Group 1 ions, Group 2 ions, transition metal ions, aluminium ions, or a combination thereof. Examples of dissolved ions include lithium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, aluminium, calcium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, copper, nickel, zinc, silver, halogen ions (e.g. fluorides, chlorides, chlorates, bromides, bromates, iodides, iodates), sulfate ions, nitrate ions, and a combination thereof. The concentration of dissolved ions in the aqueous phase may be between 0% and a saturated aqueous solution. The dissolved ions may contribute towards the conductivity of the microemulsion electrolyte composition, so the concentration of dissolved ions may be as high as possible. Exemplary ranges of dissolved ions include between 0 and 10 M, more preferably between about 0.01 M and 5 M, more preferably between 0.05 M and 1 M, most preferably between about 0.05 M and 0.5 M.

[0167] The conductivities of the oil-in-water and bicontinuous microemulsion electrolyte compositions shown in the Examples of the present invention are between 3 and 8 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1. It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the conductivity of the microemulsion electrolyte compositions may be increased beyond what has been specifically exemplified. The conductivity of the microemulsion electrolyte composition may be increased by adding additional charged species (such as by dissolving salts), which will be solubilised by the aqueous phase of the electrolyte composition. The salts may be added to the microemulsion electrolyte composition once it is already formed, or may be added to the aqueous component prior to preparation of the microemulsion electrolyte composition.

[0168] The microemulsion electrolyte composition should be sufficiently conductive to permit the flow of electric current through the electrolyte. The microemulsion electrolyte composition preferably has a conductivity of more than 0.1 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, preferably more than 1 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, preferably more than 3 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, preferably more than 5 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, or between 0.1 and 12 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, preferably between 1 and 12 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, preferably between 3 and 10 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1.

[0169] The microemulsion may include one or more amphiphiles. The amphiphile may be a surfactant, co-surfactant or a co-solvent. Suitable surfactants and co-surfactants for the preparation of microemulsion electrolyte compositions and will be known in the art. Examples of suitable surfactants include anionic surfactants, cationic surfactants, zwitterionic surfactants and non-ionic surfactants. Examples of preferred surfactants include Triton X-100, cetyltrimethylammonium chloride (CTAC), cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC), benzalkonium chloride, benzethonium chloride, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), and sodium lauryl ether sulfate (SLES). Examples of suitable co-surfactants or co-solvents include aliphatic alcohols, such as C2-C6 alcohols, and amines, such as C.sub.2-C.sub.6 alkyl amines. Preferred co-surfactants and/or co-solvents for the present invention include ethanol, propanol, butanol and pentanol.

[0170] The microemulsion electrolyte composition may include, or be adapted to include, dissolved electrochemically active species. The reactions of the electrochemically active species in an electrochemical cell generate a flow of charge and as a result generate an electric current. In particular, the microemulsion electrolyte composition may include redox active organic species.

[0171] As the microemulsion electrolyte compositions comprise aqueous and water-immiscible phases, the compositions are able to dissolve electrochemically active species and redox active organic species across a wide range of polarities and solubilities. The compositions may comprise electrochemically active species that are soluble in the aqueous phase, the water-immiscible phase, or both. Examples of electrochemically active species that may be dissolved in the microemulsion electrolyte compositions include salts (organic and inorganic), neutral organic molecules, stable organic radicals, oil-soluble metal-based compounds, organometallic compounds. Specific examples of redox active organic species that may be dissolved in the microemulsion include: ferrocene, (2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidin-1-yl)oxyl (TEMPO), phenothiazines, dimethoxybenzene, menadione and 2,1,3-benzothiadiazole. Where the microemulsion electrolyte composition is used in electrochemical cells, in particular for redox flow batteries, the concentration of redox-active species in the composition is preferably maximised. For electrochemically active species that are insoluble in water or an aqueous solution, a water-immiscible phase solvent in which the electrochemically active species is soluble is selected.

[0172] For example, the inventors have performed electrochemical reactions in redox flow battery using ferrocene in a microemulsion electrolyte composition (see Example 4 and FIGS. 13 to 23). Ferrocene is insoluble in water, indicating that the electrochemical reactions of ferrocene occur in the water-immiscible phase of the microemulsion electrolyte composition. This shows that the microemulsion electrolyte composition can solubilise organic (including organometallic) components which are not soluble in aqueous solvents, and that such components can co-exist in the same electrolyte composition as polar and ionic components.

[0173] The microemulsion electrolyte compositions have an electrochemical stability window that is greater than that of bulk water (1.23 V). Preferably, the electrochemical stability window of the microemulsion electrolyte composition is greater than 1.5 V, preferably greater than 2 V, preferably greater than 2.5 V, preferably greater than 3 V, preferably greater than 3.5 V, preferably greater than 4 V.

[0174] Preferably, in an experiment using a glassy carbon working electrode, a platinum counter electrode and a Ag/AgCl reference electrode, at room temperature and sea-level pressure, the microemulsion electrolyte composition is stable (i.e. not degrading) at voltages more negative than −0.25 V, more preferably more negative than −0.5 V, more preferably more negative than −1 V, more preferably more negative than −1.5 V, and most preferably more negative than −2 V. The microemulsion electrolyte composition is also preferably stable (i.e. not degrading) at positive voltages greater than 1.25 V, more preferably greater than 1.5 V, more preferably greater than 2 V, and more preferably greater than 2.25 V.

[0175] It is preferable that the water-immiscible phase of the microemulsion electrolyte composition does not degrade in use. In particular, it is preferable that the water-immiscible phase is stable and/or does not electrochemically degrade in use, for example, it is preferable that the water-immiscible phase is stable at potentials between −2 V and +2.5 V (Ag/AgCl reference electrode, ambient temperature at sea level). Preferably, the electrochemical stability window of the water-immiscible phase is greater than 1.5 V, preferably greater than 2 V, preferably greater than 2.5 V, preferably greater than 3 V, preferably greater than 3.5 V, preferably greater than 4 V. Similarly, it is preferable that any amphiphile present in the microemulsion does not degrade in use. In particular, it is preferable that the amphiphile is stable and/or does not electrochemically degrade in use, for example, it is preferable that the amphiphile is stable at potentials between −2 V and +2.5 V (Ag/AgCl reference electrode, ambient temperature at sea level).

[0176] From the foregoing description, it will be clear that the amounts of each component in the microemulsion electrolyte compositions (e.g. aqueous phase, water-immiscible phase, salts, amphiphiles, and electrochemically active species) may be configured or adjusted to optimise parameters such as the conductivity of the compositions, the electrochemical stability window of the compositions and the solubility of the electrochemically active species. Such optimisations would be a matter of routine experimentation and are within the scope of this invention.

[0177] In a further aspect, there is provided an electrochemical cell, such as a battery cell, comprising the microemulsion electrolyte composition of the present invention.

[0178] In preferred embodiments, the electrochemical cell comprises electrodes which have a substantially hydrophobic or lipophilic surface in contact with the microemulsion electrolyte composition. Examples of hydrophobic or lipophilic electrodes include carbon electrodes, such as glassy carbon and graphite electrodes. The surface of non-hydrophobic or non-lipophilic electrodes may be treated such that the surface becomes hydrophobic or lipophilic. Suitable electrodes having these features would be familiar to those of skill in the art.

[0179] The electrochemical cell may be suitable for any type of battery. The electrochemical cell may be an ion battery, or a flow battery. Preferably, the electrochemical cell may be a lithium ion battery, a magnesium ion battery, a sodium ion battery, an aluminium ion battery, or a redox flow battery.

[0180] Where the electrochemical cell is a flow battery, or redox flow battery, the microemulsion electrolyte composition may be used as an anolyte, catholyte or both. The microemulsion electrolyte compositions for anolyte and catholyte may be configured to optimise parameters such as conductivity of the compositions, electrochemical stability window of the compositions and the solubility of the electrochemically active species. Therefore, the anolyte and catholyte may comprise microemulsion electrolyte compositions having substantially the same formulations (except for the identity of the electrochemically active species), or the anolyte and catholyte may comprise different formulations.

[0181] The microemulsion electrolyte compositions of the present invention may be prepared according to known methods of preparing microemulsions that are familiar to those skilled in the art. The microemulsions of the present invention may be prepared by the combination of the individual components. As microemulsions are thermodynamically stable, they are able to form spontaneously. However, agitation of the microemulsion components may be performed so that the microemulsion forms in a suitably short amount of time. For example, the combined components may be agitated by stirring, shaking or sonication.

[0182] The microemulsions of the present invention may require amphiphiles, such as surfactants co-solvents and/or co-surfactants. Preferred amphiphiles are described above and a selection of amphiphiles are used in the Examples, but the invention is not limited to these specific compounds. As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, the choice of amphiphile is dependent on the type of microemulsion desired (oil-in-water, bicontinuous or water-in-oil), and on the specific identities and proportions of the components in the microemulsion electrolyte composition.

[0183] The microemulsion electrolyte composition may be prepared in ambient conditions, and batteries comprising the microemulsion electrolyte composition may also be prepared in ambient conditions. That is, at room temperature and in the presence of ambient moisture, oxygen, carbon dioxide and other atmospheric constituents.

[0184] The microemulsion electrolyte compositions are useful as electrolytes in electrochemical cells including metal ion batteries, such as lithium ion batteries, magnesium ion batteries, sodium ion batteries, and aluminium ion batteries. The microemulsion electrolyte composition enables an operating potential of greater than 1.23 V, while still allowing for dissolution of the metal ions used in metal ion batteries.

[0185] The microemulsion electrolyte compositions are also useful as electrolytes in flow batteries, such as redox flow batteries. The microemulsion electrolyte compositions may be used as catholyte and/or anolyte.

[0186] Batteries may be prepared using the microemulsion electrolyte composition of the present invention in accordance with known methods. For example, a battery may be prepared using electrodes comprising graphite and/or vanadium pentoxide, current collectors of any type (such as steel), and a body of any suitable material, such as plastic or metal, and which would be readily apparent to those of skill in the art.

[0187] Ion batteries may be constructed in ambient conditions using the microemulsion electrolyte composition of the present invention. For example, a first current collector is placed into a body (e.g. a plastic cell). A first electrode is placed on top of the current collector with the active material of the electrode facing the interior. Glass microfiber filters are cut to size and then placed on top of the first electrode to act as a separator. For small batteries, between about 0.1 ml and about 1 ml of the electrolyte of the present invention is added on top of the glass microfiber before a second electrode is placed in the cell with its active material facing the interior of the cell. A second current collector is then placed on top of the second electrode. The components are secured and the cell is closed, for example by screwing the cell closed.

[0188] Flow batteries may similarly be constructed using the microemulsion electrolyte composition of the present invention. For example, the microemulsion electrolyte composition may be used as the catholyte and/or anolyte in a flow battery. Such catholyte and/or anolyte include dissolved electrochemically active species, such as redox active organic species. Activation of the flow battery causes the redox active organic species to react in the flow battery to generate a flow of charge and an electrical current.

[0189] Supercapacitors may similarly be constructed using the microemulsion electrolyte composition of the present invention. The supercapacitors comprise two high surface area electrodes (anodic and cathodic) in contact with the microemulsion electrolyte composition, typically separated by an ion permeable separator located between the two electrodes. The microemulsion electrolyte composition, in contact with the surface of the electrodes, forms an electrical double layer to store charge.

EXAMPLES

Example 1: Preparation of Electrolyte Compositions

[0190] Microemulsion samples were prepared according to the following method.

[0191] Each microemulsion sample comprised an aqueous component and a water-immiscible component, optionally a surfactant and/or optionally a co-surfactant. The components of each microemulsion sample are shown in Table 1.

[0192] The surfactant was weighed into an Erlenmeyer flask to which the water-immiscible component and co-surfactant were added. This mixture was stirred thoroughly to form a uniform slurry, and the aqueous component was then added. The mixture was turbid and white, which upon sonication in an ultrasonic bath or stirring, led to the formation of a clear microemulsion.

[0193] ME1 was prepared according to the method described in Menger, F. M. & Elrington, A. R. “Organic reactivity in microemulsion systems” J. Am. Chem. Soc. 113, 9621-9624 (1991), and the methods of preparing ME2, ME3, ME5, ME12 and ME13 were based on this disclosure. ME2b was prepared according to the method described in Lang, Djavanbakht, Zana, “Ultrasonic absorption study of microemulsions in ternary and pseudoternary systems”, J. Phys. Chem., 1980, 84 (12), pp 1541-1547. ME6 was prepared according to the method described in Sun, B. et al. “A surfactant-free microemulsion consisting of water, ethanol, and dichloromethane and its template effect for silica synthesis” J. Colloid Interface Sci. 526, 9-17 (2018). ME10 was prepared according to the method described in Mukherjee, K., Mukherjee, D. C. & Moulik, S. P. “Thermodynamics of Microemulsion Formation” J. Colloid Interface Sci. 187, 327-333 (1997). ME11 was prepared according to the method described in Gorel, F. “Assessment of agar gel loaded with microemulsion for the cleaning of porous surfaces” CeROArt Conserv. Expo. Restaur. D'Objets D'Art (2010).

[0194] For the microemulsions with dissolved salts (e.g. ME6), the required amount of salt was weighed and added to the prepared microemulsion.

Example 2: Electrochemical Stability Window of Microemulsions

[0195] Cyclic voltammetry analysis of each sample was performed using a glassy carbon working electrode, a platinum counter electrode and a Ag/AgCl reference electrode, using a Metrohm Autolab PGSTAT302 potentiostat. A scan rate of 100 mV/s was used.

[0196] Voltammograms of each sample are shown in FIGS. 1 to 11.

[0197] The electrochemical stability window of each microemulsion sample was determined as the potential difference between the onset potential (the potential at which the current begins to rise or fall) of each of the cathodic and anodic reactions. The electrochemical stability window of each microemulsion electrolyte composition sample is shown in Table 1.

[0198] FIG. 12 shows a cyclic voltammogram of a 0.1 M aq. KCl solution, having an onset potential (potential at which the current starts to rise or fall) for 02 evolution at ˜1.25V vs. Ag/AgCl and an onset potential for H.sub.2 evolution at ˜−1V vs. Ag/AgCl. Most of the microemulsions (except for ME6 and ME10) show an onset potential for 02 evolution higher than 1.25V, depending on the microemulsion composition. The onset potentials for H.sub.2 evolution are also lower than −1.0V, ranging from −2.0V to −2.5V, again depending on the microemulsion composition. It should be noted that onset potentials can differ between electrolytes, due to factors such as pH differences as well as differences between reference electrodes. Therefore, merely comparing, for example, the reduction reaction onset potentials of electrolytes cannot give meaningful information about the electrochemical stability windows of those electrolytes. Onset potentials become meaningful for electrochemical stability of electrolyte compositions when both the reduction and oxidation onset potentials are known, as the difference between the two gives the electrochemical stability window. In case of the microemulsions of the Examples, the electrochemical stability windows are significantly wider than that of the window for 0.1 M aq. KCl (e.g. a maximum of ˜4.5V for ME1 compared to 2.25 V for aqueous KCl).

Example 3: Conductivity of Microemulsions

[0199] The conductivity tests for all samples were performed using a ECTestr11 (Eutech Instruments) conductivity meter. The device was calibrated using an Enviroquip conductivity calibration standard (1413 μS/cm @ 25° C.) before the measurements were made. Conductivity measurements for each microemulsion samples are shown in Table 1.

TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Non-polar Co- Window Conduc- (water- (weight Polar (weight Sur- (weight surfactant/ (weight (vs Ag/ Window, tivity Type immiscible) %) (aqueous) %) factant %) co-solvent %) AgCl) V (mS/cm) ME1 O/W Cyclohexane 3.2 Water 82.1 SDS 4.9 Butanol 9.8 −2 to 2.5 4.5 7.5 microemulsion with anionic surfactant ME2 O/W Toluene 3.2 Water 82.1 SDS 4.9 Butanol 9.8 −2 to 1.5 3.5 7.5 microemulsion with anionic surfactant ME2b Bicontinuous Toluene 31 Water 40 SDS 9.67 Butanol 19.34 −2 to 1.5 3.5 6.7 microemulsion with anionic surfactant ME3 O/W 1,2- 3.2 Water 82.1 SDS 4.9 Butanol 9.8 −2 to 2 4 7.9 microemulsion dichloro- with anionic benzene surfactant ME4 O/W Hexane 3 Water 82 CTAC 5 Butanol 10 −2.5 to 3.75 7.2 microemulsion 1.25 with cationic surfactant ME5 O/W p-xylene 3.2 Water 82.1 SDS 4.9 Butanol 9.8 −2.25 to 3.75 7 microemulsion 1.5 with anionic surfactant ME6 Bi-continuous Dichloro- 26 0.1M 36.5 Ethanol 37.5 −2 to 3.25 1.49 microemulsion methane KCl 1.25 ME10 O/W Chloroform 6.3 Water 89.8 CPC 3.9 −0.25 to 1.5 3.7 microemulsion 1.25 with cationic surfactant ME11 O/W Petroleum 5 Water 85 SDS 4 Pentanol 6 −2 to 2 4 6.8 microemulsion ether with anionic surfactant ME12 O/W Acetophe- 3.2 Water 82.1 SDS 4.9 Butanol 9.8 −1 to 2 3 7 microemulsion none with anionic surfactant ME13 O/W Ethyl 3.2 Water 82.1 SDS 4.9 Butanol 9.8 −1.5 to 2 3.5 7.4 microemulsion benzoate with anionic surfactant ME14 O/W Cyclohexane 10 Water 65.7 Triton 24.3 — — −2 to 2 4 Not microemulsion X-100 measured with non-ionic surfactant Compari- Aqueous soln 0.1M −1 to 2.25 son of 0.1M KCl KCl 1.25 (SDS = sodium dodecyl sulfate, CTAC = cetyltrimethylammonium chloride, CPC = cetylpyridinium chloride); O/W = oil in water.

Example 4: Electrochemical Experimentation in Microemulsions

[0200] For each microemulsion sample, an amount of ferrocene was weighed and dissolved in the water-immiscible phase component to achieve a 100 mM concentration in the oil phase before preparing the microemulsions according to Example 1.

[0201] Cyclic voltammetry analysis of each sample was performed using a glassy carbon working electrode, a platinum counter electrode and a Ag/AgCl reference electrode, using a Metrohm Autolab PGSTAT302 potentiostat. Scan rate of 100 mV/s was used.

[0202] Voltammograms of ferrocene in each of the samples are shown in FIGS. 13 to 23.

[0203] The redox reactions of ferrocene can be interpreted as follows: During the forward scan (from 0 V to more positive voltages), ferrocene (Fc) is oxidized to ferrocenium (Fc.sup.+) via a 1 electron oxidation, which can be seen in the form a cathodic peak current (i.sup.pc) at a potential E.sub.pc. During the backward scan, the reduction of Fc.sup.+ to Fc, again via a 1 electron reduction can be seen in the form an anodic peak current i.sub.pa at a potential E.sub.pa. The redox potential of Fc/Fc.sup.+ is thereby defined as the average of E.sub.pa and E.sub.pc, whereas the reversibility of the redox process is defined in terms of the ratio i.sub.pa/i.sub.pc (for a fully reversible process the ratio is 1).

[0204] The redox potential for the Fc/Fc.sup.+ couple in each sample is around 0.3V, and the peak current ratios are close to 1, implying reversible electron transfer.

Example 5: Battery Construction

[0205] Batteries comprising the microemulsion electrolyte compositions of Example 1 were prepared on a benchtop in ambient conditions. Whatman™ glass microfiber filters were used as separators. The cells were made with a polyether ether ketone (PEEK) body, and steel current collectors sandwiching the cell together. Between 0.1 ml and 0.2 ml of the electrolyte composition was added to each cell before the last layer was added.

[0206] The electrodes used in the batteries were prepared from a pyrolytic graphite sheet (purchased from MTI Corporation) and a V.sub.2O.sub.5 slurry which was doctor bladed onto pyrolytic graphite sheet. The V.sub.2O.sub.5 slurry was made with 85 wt % V.sub.2O.sub.5, 9 wt % super conductive carbon (Super P) and 6% polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) binder. N-methyl pyrrolidone (NMP) was used as the solvent. The slurry was bladed onto the pyrolytic graphite sheet, and then the sheet was heated in a vacuum oven at 120° C. overnight to completely evaporate the solvent.

[0207] Battery electrolytes were prepared from microemulsion electrolyte compositions comprising: [0208] ME1 in which the aqueous phase is 0.5 moldm.sup.−3 MgSO.sub.4. [0209] ME2 in which the aqueous phase is 0.1 moldm.sup.−3 NaCl [0210] ME2 in which the aqueous phase is 0.1 moldm.sup.−3 LiCl [0211] ME2 in which the aqueous phase is 0.1 moldm.sup.−3 AlCl.sub.3

[0212] Batteries prepared according to Example 5 were tested on a Neware battery analyser, BTS 3000 at a current density of 10 mAg.sup.−1 and cycled between the voltages as shown in FIGS. 24 to 27. All experiments were performed at room temperature. Chronopotentiograms of each battery are shown in FIGS. 24 to 27. The FIGS. 24 to 27 show regular charge-discharge behaviour, and indicate that no water-splitting occurs during operation of the cells.

[0213] For comparison, FIG. 28 shows a chronopotentiogram of a magnesium ion battery comprising an aqueous electrolyte (not a microemulsion). FIG. 28 shows that the potential rises to about 0.7 V and then climbs in an irregular manner with many sharp increases and decreases to a maximum of just under 1 V before it slightly falls again. This cell failed to reach the 1 V upper cut-off of the battery analyser, despite charge continually flowing into the cell. The spikes and dips in the curve indicate that the battery is not charging and some other process is going on in the cell, most likely electrolyte decomposition. This is not observed in cells where the electrolyte is a microemulsion electrolyte composition (e.g. FIGS. 24 to 27), where the curves are smother, indicating regular charge-discharge behaviour as opposed to the behaviour of the aqueous cell.

Example 6: Redox Flow Battery Construction and Testing

[0214] The efficacy of microemulsion electrolyte compositions described herein was investigated in redox flow battery systems using a laboratory-scale conventional flow battery assembly.

[0215] A redox flow battery was prepared comprising carbon cloth electrodes, aluminium metal interdigitated flow plates cum current collectors, and a Celgard 4560 separator. Flow of electrolytes (catholyte and anolyte) was achieved using a peristaltic pump purchased from Schenzen coupled with Masterflex Tygon (E-3603) tubing.

[0216] Catholyte and anolyte compositions for the redox flow battery were prepared by adding an electrochemically active species to a microemulsion composition, ME2 (see Table 1). For this test, several different redox active organic species were used, as shown in Table 2 below. For each test, the anolyte and catholyte consisted of 10 mM active species in ME2 microemulsion.

TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 Cell Test no. Catholyte active species Anolyte active species voltage, V 1 Ferrocene Menadione ~1   2 (2,2,6,6- Menadione ~1.2-1.3 Tetramethylpiperidin-1- yl)oxyl (TEMPO) 3 Phenothiazine Menadione ~1.5 4 Dimethoxybenzene Menadione above 1.5 5 Dimethoxybenzene 2,1,3-benzothiadiazole ~2.5

[0217] With reference to Table 2, above: Ferrocene is an organometallic redox active organic species. Menadione is neutral organic molecule redox active organic species, specifically a quinone. TEMPO is a stable organic radical. Phenothiazine is a neutral redox active organic species. Dimethoxybenzene is a neutral redox active organic species. 2,1,3-benzothiadiazole is another neutral redox active organic species. It is to be noted that phenothiazine and dimethoxybenzene can be substituted by different substituents, and each compound is part of a class of phenothiazines and dimethoxybenzenes.

[0218] In each test, 50 mL each of anolyte and catholyte were used with a constant flow rate of 20 mL/min. The redox flow battery charge/discharge test was carried out in a galvanostatic mode with a 10 mA current. Voltages were set within cut offs of 0 V to 1 V. The chronopotentiogram of the battery cell of Test no. 1 is shown at FIG. 29, showing regular charge-discharge behaviour.

[0219] FIG. 29 shows that the microemulsion electrolyte compositions can act as a conductive medium for the oxidation and reduction reactions of the redox active organic species, and can therefore be used as redox flow battery electrolytes. There are characteristic charging and discharging plateaus around 0.7 V.

[0220] FIG. 29 further shows that the microemulsion composition has good conductivity as an electrolyte, as the Figure shows the microemulsion composition to have a iR drop (voltage difference at the end of charge and beginning of discharge) expected from a typical redox flow battery of this assembly. The iR drop observed typically comes from the membrane and cell resistance and not from the electrolyte.

[0221] As neither ferrocene nor menadione is soluble in water, these redox active organic species are assumed to be dissolved in the water-immiscible phase of the microemulsion electrolyte composition yet regular charge/discharge behaviour is still observed. Thus, FIG. 29 is further proof the microemulsion electrolyte composition can dissolve and facilitate electrochemical reactions of the redox active organic species by virtue of having an electrochemically active oil phase.

Example 7: Ion Battery Construction and Testing

[0222] The efficacy of microemulsion electrolyte compositions described herein was investigated in ion cell systems. Ion batteries were constructed in Swagelok cells comprising the electrolyte described herein, an anode, a cathode, a polyether ether ketone (PEEK) body, glassy carbon current collectors, and glass microfiber separators.

[0223] The anode was prepared according to the following method: 255 mg of TiO.sub.2 powder (Degussa, P-25), 27 mg super conductive carbon (Super P), and 18 mg polyvinylidene difluoride were combined with N-methyl pyrrolidone (NMP) to form a thick slurry. The slurry was then doctor bladed onto a pyrolytic graphite sheet (MTI Corporation) and dried in a vacuum oven at 120° C. for 12 hours.

[0224] For Cells 1 to 3, a cathode was prepared according to the following method: Prussian blue was prepared by combining equimolar amounts of FeCl.sub.3 and potassium ferricyanide (K.sub.3[Fe(CN).sub.6]) in water under vigorous stirring in ambient conditions. The mixture was dried and the resulting solid was crushed. 255 mg of Prussian blue powder, 27 mg super conductive carbon (Super P), and 18 mg polyvinylidene difluoride were combined with N-methyl pyrrolidone (NMP) to form a thick slurry. The slurry was then doctor bladed onto a pyrolytic graphite sheet (MTI Corporation) and dried in a vacuum oven at 120° C. for 12 hours.

[0225] For Cells 4 and 6, a V.sub.2O.sub.5 cathode was prepared according to the method described in Example 5.

[0226] For Cell 5, a MoS.sub.2 cathode and graphite anode were used.

[0227] A microemulsion electrolyte (ME14) was prepared according to the following method: 65.7 wt % distilled water, 24.3 wt % Triton X-100 (t-octylphenoxypolyethoxyethanol) and 10 wt % cyclohexane were combined, sonicated for about one hour and then left to stir overnight. To ME14, 10 wt % of bis(2-methoxyethyl) ether (Diglyme) was added. The final composition of the microemulsion is therefore: 59.7 wt % distilled water, 22.1 wt % Triton X-100, 9.1 wt % cyclohexane and 10 wt % diglyme.

[0228] For Cells 1 to 3, the corresponding metal chloride salt was added to ME14 to give a cation concentration of 1 mol/kg. For Cell 4, LiCl was added to ME14 to give a concentration of 0.1 mol/kg. For Cell 5, MgCl.sub.2 was added to ME14 to give a concentration of 0.1 mol/kg.

[0229] Accordingly, the constructed cells have the composition described in Table 3:

TABLE-US-00003 TABLE 3 Cell no. Anode Cathode Electrolyte 1 TiO.sub.2 Prussian blue ME14 with 1 mol/kg KCl 2 TiO.sub.2 Prussian blue ME14 with 1 mol/kg CaCl.sub.2 3 TiO.sub.2 Prussian blue ME14 with 1 mol/kg NaCl 4 TiO.sub.2 V.sub.2O.sub.5 ME14 with 0.1 mol/kg LiCl 5 Graphite MoS.sub.2 ME14 with 0.1 mol/kg MgCl.sub.2 6 TiO.sub.2 V.sub.2O.sub.5 ME14 (Control)

[0230] Between 0.1 ml and 0.2 ml of the electrolyte composition was added to each cell construction before the last layer was added.

[0231] Charge/discharge FIGS. 30 to 42 show the charge-discharge behaviour of Cells 1 to 5. Cells 1 to 3, 5 and 6 were tested on a Neware battery analyser, BTS 3000 at a current density of 50 mA/g. Cell 4 was tested at a current density of 10 mA/g. Cells were run with a constant charge and discharge current of 100 mA/g between 0 V and about 2.0 V (the exact upper cut-off ranges were from 1.9 V to 2.2 V, depending on cell). All experiments were performed at room temperature.

[0232] FIGS. 30 to 33 show the analysis of Cell 1 (KCl). FIGS. 34 and 35 show the analysis of Cell 2 (CaCl.sub.2)). FIGS. 36 and 37 show the analysis of Cell 3 (NaCl). Testing of Cells 1 to 3, shown in FIGS. 30 to 37, showed no evidence of water splitting despite operating at greater than 2V. The shape of the charge-discharge curves in FIGS. 30, 32, 34 and 36 indicate redox reactions are occurring in the cell. The nominal cell voltage (taken as approximately where the charge and discharge curves intersect) is approximately 1.7V which is well above the theoretical 1.23V water splitting potential.

[0233] FIGS. 38 to 41 show the analysis of Cell 4 (LiCl). This cell shows a capacity of greater than 140 mAh/g. The nominal cell voltage is approximately 0.7V. There is no evidence of water splitting even though it is charged to 2.4V.

[0234] FIG. 42 shows the analysis of Cell 5 (MgCl.sub.2).

[0235] Regular charge-discharge behaviour was observed over multiple cycles, indicating that water-splitting does not occur during operation of the cells. For example, the Figures show that Cells 1-5 retain their charge and discharge capacity over 30 cycles.

[0236] Cyclic Voltammetry Data

[0237] Cyclic voltammetry analysis (Ag/AgCl reference electrode) of Cell 4 (1.0 mol/kg LiCl in ME14) and Cell 6 (ME14 control) was performed using a Metrohm Autolab PGSTAT302 potentiostat. A scan rate of 100 mV/s was used. Voltammograms are shown in FIGS. 43 to 45.

[0238] For the V.sub.2O.sub.5 electrode of Cell 4, the cell was analysed from −1.5 V to 2.0 V (vs Ag/AgCl). For the TiO.sub.2 electrode of Cell 4, the cell was analysed from −1.0 to 1.5 V (vs Ag/AgCl). Analysis of each electrode indicates that water splitting does not occur in this range. These measurements were compared to a cyclic voltammetry measurement of Cell 6 (a control microemulsion of ME14 with no other dissolved salts), which confirmed the electrochemical reactions observed in Cell 4 is due to the action of lithium; Cell 6 shows only capacitance, no electrochemical activity.

Example 8—Supercapacitor

[0239] A supercapacitor comprising the microemulsion electrolyte composition described herein was constructed and analysed.

[0240] Electrodes were prepared as follows: A 70 wt % zeolite slurry solution was prepared by adding NMP dropwise until it completely dissolved 0.05 g of PVDF (about 2 mL). To this solution, 0.10 g of carbon black and 0.35 g of 4 Å molecular sieves were added, which formed a viscous black slurry. The slurry was then doctor bladed onto a pyrolytic graphite sheet (MTI Corporation) and dried in a vacuum oven at 120° C. for 12 hours to form the zeolite electrodes.

[0241] A supercapacitor was assembled comprising zeolite electrodes (as both anode and cathode), glassy carbon current collectors, an electrolyte composition of ME14 comprising 1 mol/kg KCl, a glass microfiber separator, and a polyether ether ketone (PEEK) body.

[0242] The supercapacitor was cycled between 0 and 2V at 100 mA/g for 500 cycles. As shown in FIGS. 46-48, the supercapacitor has a reversible capacity of about 4.5 mAh/g (FIGS. 46 and 47) and a coulombic efficiency of ˜98% (FIG. 48). The shape of the voltage capacity curve (FIG. 46) indicates a purely capacitive process. The capacitance was calculated to be approximately 16.7 F/g.

[0243] Although the invention has been described by way of example, it should be appreciated that variations and modifications may be made without departing from the scope of the invention as defined in the claims. Furthermore, where known equivalents exist to specific features, such equivalents are incorporated as if specifically referred in this specification. The specific compositions and methods described herein are representative of preferred examples and are exemplary and not intended as limitations on the scope of the invention. Other aspects and examples will occur to those skilled in the art upon consideration of this specification, and are encompassed within the spirit of the invention as defined by the scope of the claims. It will be readily apparent to one skilled in the art that varying substitutions and modifications may be made to the invention disclosed herein without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention. The invention illustratively described herein suitably may be practiced in the absence of any element or elements, or limitation or limitations, which is not specifically disclosed as essential. Thus, for example, in each instance described or used herein, in embodiments or examples of the present invention, any of the terms “comprising”, “consisting essentially of”, and “consisting of” may be replaced with either of the other two terms in the specification. Also, the terms “comprising”, “including”, “containing”, etc. are to be read expansively and without limitation. The assays and methods illustratively described herein suitably may be practiced in differing orders of steps, and that they are not necessarily restricted to the orders of steps indicated herein or in the claims. Further, as used or described herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural reference unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Under no circumstances may the patent be interpreted to be limited to the specific examples or embodiments or methods specifically disclosed herein.

[0244] The terms and expressions that have been employed are used as terms of description and not of limitation, and there is no intent in the use of such terms and expressions to exclude any equivalent of the features shown and described or portions thereof, but it is recognised that various modifications are possible within the scope of the invention as claimed. Thus, it will be understood that although the present invention has been specifically disclosed by preferred embodiments and optional features, modification and variation of the concepts disclosed herein may be resorted to by those skilled in the art, and that such modifications and variations are considered to be within the scope of this invention as described herein, and as defined by the appended claims.

[0245] The invention has been described broadly and generically herein. Each of the narrower species and subgeneric groupings falling within the generic disclosure also form part of the invention. This includes the generic description of the invention with a proviso or negative limitation removing any subject matter from the genus, regardless of whether or not the excised material is specifically recited herein. Other embodiments are within the following claims.