Abstract
The present invention relates to a new device for selective arsenic sensing using electrochemically reduced graphene oxide (ERGO) based reusable flexible electrode strip. Active electrode of the device was prepared by a very simple method in which the thin film of graphene oxide (GO) was reduced electrochemically at a low DC potential (0 to -1.5 V). The said device selectively detects As.sup.3+ in field water sample within a wide range of concentrations with a limit of detection of less than 25 ppb. More importantly, the selectivity of the electrode is independent of conductivity and TDS levels of measured field water samples which were collected from various parts of India. Selective detection of As.sup.3+ by ERGO was controlled by optimizing the surface electronic conductivity through structural modification of it during electroreduction process.
Claims
1. A point-of-care (POC) chronoamperometry device for selective arsenite (As.sup.3+) sensing, the said device comprises, a reusable bio-mimic electrode test strip made of electrochemically reduced graphene oxide (ERGO) grown by electroreduction of graphene oxide (GO) on a metallic thin film coated flexible substrate, where, the electronic property of the ERGO surface is modified to obtain selectivity for As.sup.3+ by electrochemical reduction of GO at a low DC potential in the range between 0 to -1.5 V at the electrode for 0 to 8 hours wherein, the said device selectively detects As.sup.3+ in field water samples upon applying a fixed potential of +0.1 to +0.25 V in a pH range of 6-9 and is independent of conductivity and TDS levels in the water samples.
2. The device as claimed in claim 1, wherein the bio-mimicked ERGO electrodes are grown by controlling the electronic property of ERGO by electro-reduction of graphene oxide (GO) film.
3. The device as claimed in claim 1, wherein the ERGO is used as an active electrode for chronoamperometry based As.sup.3+ sensing platform.
4. The device as claimed in claim 1, wherein the flexible substrate is polyethylene terephthalate (PET).
5. The device as claimed in claim 1, wherein the detection is independent of conductivity and TDS levels in water and As.sup.3+ is selectively detected in field water samples even in the conductivity range of 650-1000 .Math.S/cm and TDS range of 500-4000 ppm.
6. The device as claimed in claim 1, wherein the ERGO strips are reusable for 10 times.
7. The device as claimed in claim 1, wherein the ERGO electrodes show high electrochemical stability even when used at high temperatures of 45° C. and humidity of 80% RH for one month.
8. The device as claimed in claim 1, wherein the limits of detection (LOD) of As.sup.3+ in field samples is less than 25 ppb.
9. The device as claimed in claim 1, wherein surface defects on sp.sup.2 carbons of the basal plane of a monolayer reduced graphene oxide act as active sites for As.sup.3+ oxidation.
10. The device as claimed in claim 1, wherein the flexible substrate is coated with metallic substrates selected from Ag, Au, Pt or their alloys.
11. The device as claimed in claim 1, wherein the device is part of a larger unit, which measures the quality parameters of the solution it is exposed to.
Description
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0011] FIG. 1 (A) CV of Au strips in 1 mM ferricyanide solution to study the effect of MESA pretreatment, (B) digital image of pristine GO and ERGO strips, (C) homemade set-up with PCB for multi-electrode preparation, study the As.sup.3+ response by CV using several ERGO electrodes; (D) ERGO1, (E) ERGO2, and (F) ERGO3.
[0012] FIG. 2 (A) Mott-Schottky analysis of ERGO samples to determine the surface charge of them. (B) Tabulated form shows a variation of intrinsic charge concentration of different ERGO samples. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurement using different ERGO samples with and without As.sup.3+, (C) ERGO1, (D) ERGO2, and (E) ERGO3. (F) Fitting circuit along with both experimental and fitting data of all the samples.
[0013] FIG. 3 (A) Scan rate dependent cyclic voltammetry (CV) of ERGO3 using 200 ppb As.sup.3+ in PBS, (B) variation of peak current with scan rate, (C) Liner sweep voltammetry of the same sample with different concentration of As.sup.3+ in PBS, (D) continuous CV scans for 50 cycles with 10 ppm of As.sup.3+ in DI water, (E) chronogram obtained from ion chromatography (IC) measurements with standard (STD) As.sup.5+ solutions of different concentrations along with the solution obtained after CV cycles, (F) - (I) voltammogram of ERGO3 in presence of different heavy metal ions As.sup.5+, Cu.sup.2+, Fe.sup.2+, and Mn.sup.2+, respectively.
[0014] FIG. 4 (A) CA response of ERGO3 with 1 ppm As.sup.3+ in PBS (pH~7) with respect to the response current of PBS alone. The experiment was performed after electrochemical stabilization of ERGO3 coated strips through continuous CA scans in PBS. Each CA spectrum was fitted with a tri-exponential decay function and each data point was selected at 25 s of CA measurement. Inset figure shows CA response of bare metal strip with different heavy metal ions. (B) Interference study performed with several heavy metal ions with ERGO6 electrode. Concentration of As.sup.3+ was fixed with 200 ppb, while 1 ppm was maintained for interfering ions. (C) Repetitive CA measurements with different concentrations of As.sup.3+, which demonstrates the reproducibility of the linear current response to different As.sup.3+ concentrations, (D)measurement of a calibration curve to determine the LOD in PBS.
[0015] FIG. 5 (A) Investigation of CA current response of 1 ppm As.sup.3+ spiked in PBS with different ionic conductivity. (B) Repetitive CA current response of ERGO3 with different field samples (marked as F1-F10) which have different conductivity and TDS levels. CA response of various field samples (no As was found) with different TDS and conductivity. Initial three cycles represent the current response of As.sup.3+ in PBS, while every three sets of the rest of the cycles represent the current response of the electrode with a particular field sample having no As.sup.3+. We tested with ten individual field samples. (C) Variation of different conductivity and TDS of measured field water samples. (D) CA current response of As.sup.3+ spiked in both PBS and different field samples. First three cycles correspond to the current responses of 1 ppm As.sup.3+ in PBS followed by current responses in field sample with 1 ppm As.sup.3+. This experiment was carried out with three different field samples (F1-F3). (E) CV performed with the same ERGO3 electrode with field sample (F1), inset figure shows CV of the same electrode in PBS. (F) Calibration curve obtained from CA measurements performed with different concentrations of As.sup.3+ (varying from 500 to 5 ppb) spiked in the field sample.
[0016] FIG. 6 CV with 1 ppm As.sup.3+ using (A) as prepared ERGO3, (B) the same strip after 2 months, and (C) electrodes are connected with a commercial handheld ponetiostatic device.
[0017] FIG. 7 FTIR spectra of ERGO3 (A) without (solid black trace) and with As.sup.3+ (solid grey trace), (B) FTIR spectra of the same strip without As.sup.3+ (solid black trace), with As.sup.3+ (solid grey trace), after washing off it with DI water (solid light grey trace), and after electrochemical oxidation (black short dotted). (C) Proposed reaction mechanism involved with As.sup.3+adsorption on the surface of ERGO3. (D) FTIR spectra of bare ERGO3 electrode (black solid trace), the same electrode with a mixture of interfering ions (grey dotted trace) and interfering ions along with As.sup.3+ (solid light grey trace).
[0018] Referring to the drawings, the embodiments of the present invention are further described. The figures are not necessarily drawn to scale, and in some instances, the drawings have been exaggerated or simplified for illustrative purposes only. One of ordinary skill in the art may appreciate the many possible applications and variations of the present invention based on the following examples of possible embodiments of the present invention.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
[0019] The following embodiments have been presented by way of example to describe the spirit of the present invention, and do not limit the scope of the present invention unless otherwise indicated. Also, in the drawings used in the following description, the main sections are enlarged for convenience to clarify the features of the present invention, and the dimensional ratios of the respective components are not necessarily the same as the actual.
[0020] The present invention relates to the development of a new POC chronoamperometric device for the selective detection of As.sup.3+ in the field water. The CA device comprises a reusable bio-mimic electrode test strips coated with optimized thin ERGO film. The fabrication of ERGO thin film was done by time-dependent electro-reduction of GO which was aimed to control their electronic property through structural modification of ERGO film for sensitive and selective detection of As.sup.3+ in field water.
Synthesis of GO
[0021] Typically, GO was synthesized from graphite powder based on the modified Hummer’s method. Briefly, graphite powder (1-4 g) was oxidized in a hot solution (50-150° C.) of concentrated H.sub.2SO.sub.4 (5-40 mL) containing K.sub.2S.sub.2O.sub.8 (1-8 g), and P.sub.2O.sub.5 (2-84 g). The resulting dark blue mixture was kept thermally isolated and allowed to cool down to room temperature for 1-10 h. The mixture was diluted to 100-500 mL and the resulting solution was filtered subsequently. Finally, the filtrated product was dried overnight at 40- 100° C. in a hot air oven. As synthesized pre-oxidized graphite powder (1-5 g) was further added to 50-150 mL of cold H.sub.2SO.sub.4 (0° C.), to which KMnO.sub.4 (4-20 g) was gradually added under continuous stirring in ice-bath. After 5-30 min, NaNO.sub.3 (1-6 g) was added to the mixture. The solution was further stirred for 1-5 h at 25-50° C. and distilled water (100-500 mL) was added dropwise during stirring. The reaction was stopped after simultaneous addition of a mixture of 100-500 mL distilled water and 5-30 mL of H.sub.2O.sub.2 (10-50 %) to the previous solution. The final product was washed sequentially with different solvents; at first, with diluted HCl (1:20) and then with water, and at last, the product was suspended in distilled water. The brown dispersion was dialyzed extensively to remove both residual metal ions and acids. Finally, the dispersion was exfoliated via ultrasonication (300 W) for 1-5 h and unexfoliated graphite oxide was further removed by centrifugation (12000 rpm for 20 min using Centrifuge KUBOTA (Tokyo, Japan)).
ERGO Fabrication on the Thin Metallic Film Coated Test Strips
[0022] At first, flexible and patterned thin metallic strips, on which ERGO was fabricated, was pretreated with 1-5 mM of sodium 2-mercaptoethanesulfonate (MESA, HSCH.sub.2CH.sub.2SO.sub.3Na). The thin film on the test strip is made of any of the noble metals (Au, Pt, Ag) or their alloys. This metallic film acts as the current collector during electrochemical measurements. For chemical pretreatment, strips were dipped in MESA for 12 - 100 hours for surface modification. Test strips were rinsed subsequently to remove excess MESA from the test strips, and finally, those were dried with N.sub.2 gas. To check the electrochemical activity and interfacial charge transfer of surface-modified metallic surface, we measured CV of the test strips (with and without MESA treatment) with a mixture of 1-4 mM potassium ferricyanide and 50-150 mM KCl. The resulting voltammogram is shown in FIG. 1, where redox peak potential difference of pretreated test strips is 60-80 mV which ensures a one-electron transfer process at the electrolyte interface. Before starting the ERGO fabrication process on MESA treated metal strip, we prepared 4 to 8 .Math.g/ml of GO suspension from 0.05 to 0.4 mg/ml of stock solution. Later, a mixture was prepared by maintaining a volume ratio of 2:1 with diluted GO and Nafion (1 to 5 %), respectively. Subsequently, 1 to 10 .Math.L of GO solution mixture was drop-casted on the working electrode of test strips followed by vacuum drying of them for 1-12 h. Finally, electro-reduction of GO film was performed at 0 to -1.5 V with PBS which was used as an electrolyte during the reduction process. The electro-reduction was carried out for different time durations (1 to 10 h). Herein, we prepared three ERGO electrodes by varying electro-reduction time and those were named as ERGO1, ERGO2 and ERGO3, respectively. Digital images of the GO coated electrode strips before and after electro-reduction are shown in FIG. 1. For scale-up of electrode preparation, a homemade set-up was developed with a PCB (printed circuit board) using multiple three-electrode adapters through which multiple ERGO coated strips were produced at a time, as shown in FIG. 1.
[0023] The following section describes the fabrication of the electrode and optimization of their response to As.sup.3+, followed by the investigation on the change in electronic conductivity of ERGO electrodes and their effect on As.sup.3+ response by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy(EIS). Finally, the sensitivity and selectivity of As.sup.3+ response and electrochemical stability of the optimized electrode are discussed. All the electrochemical measurements were done at room temperature. Electro-analytical measurements were performed with PalmSens Potentiostat, while EIS was performed with Biologic SP200 Potentiostat/Galvanostat.
[0024] FIG. 1 describes voltammogram of bare test strips with (grey curve) and without surface pre-treatment (black curve). The differences between peak potential (ΔE.sub.p~ 60-80 mV) of the voltammogram ensures a one-electron transfer process between the interface of MESA treated strip and electrolyte. The present invention observed E.sub.p of about 300 mV for the untreated test strip, while voltammogram of the same strip after MESA treatment shows 60-80 mV. FIG. 1B represents the digital photograph of both GO and ERGO coated metal strips and those were used for further analytical measurements with both CV and CA techniques. Scale bar determines the actual dimension of the electrodes (working, counter, and reference) which were patterned on the test strips. The geometrical surface area of the active working electrode (ERGO) was fixed as 0.25 cm.sup.2 and it was same for all the test strips. Before starting any analytical measurements, CV was performed with all ERGO electrodes in PBS (pH ~ 7) using 1 ppm As.sup.3+ and the corresponding voltammograms are shown in FIG. 1, respectively. ERGO3 electrode responded exclusively to As.sup.3+, while other electrodes were inactive for an electrochemical response of As.sup.3+. The current maxima associated with As.sup.3+ response is related to oxidation of As.sup.3+. Therefore, ERGO3 was used further for sensitivity and selectivity measurements. Since ERGO electrodes were developed by electro-reduction of oxygen functional groups of GO and ERGO3 responded to As.sup.3+ exclusively, there must be an effect of electronic conductivity of the ERGO electrodes on As.sup.3+ sensing. Thus, EIS was performed to investigate, how electrochemical reduction of oxygen functional groups affected the electronic property of the individual ERGO electrode and made it sensitive to As.sup.3+.
[0025] EIS technique was used as a probe to understand the electronic property of the ERGO surface and its effect on the interfacial charge transport during As.sup.3+ sensing. Electronic property of the ERGO electrodes (ERGO1, ERGO2, and ERGO3) was investigated by Mott-Schottky analysis, in which reciprocal of the square of capacitance was plotted with applied potential to the ERGO electrode. The Mott-Schottky plot shown in FIG. 2 was deduced by measuring the impedance of the electrode by varying applied DC potential at a given frequency of the AC signal (in our case, it is 1 kHz). The mathematical expression of Mott-Schottky (M-S) plot is represented as in equation 1, which is a linear equation and from the slope of the equation, we determine the density of charge at the electrode. Moreover, both positive slope and negative slope determine the n-type (negative) and p-type (positive) charge at the ERGO electrodes, respectively.
[00001]
Where, C.sub.sc, ε.sub.0, ε.sub.r, N.sub.d, A, e, V.sub.fb, K, and T are space charge capacitance formed beneath of the surface of ERGO, the dielectric constant of free space, the relative dielectric constant of ERGO, charge density accumulated in ERGO, the geometrical surface area of ERGO, electronic charge, flat band voltage of ERGO, Boltzman constant, and temperature, respectively.
[0026] In FIG. 2, it is seen that there is a variation of both positive and negative slopes simultaneously and increase of positive slope with increase in reduction time of the electrode attributes to the accumulation of positive charges in both ERGO2 and ERGO3, respectively. FIG. 2 represents the tabulated form of both positive and negative charges of all the electrodes. The inverse V shape of the M-S plot decides the existence of both positive and negative charges of the electrodes [Meng, F.; Li, J.; Cushing, S. K.; Zhi, M., Wu, N. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2013, 135, 10286-10289, 17-18, Li, J.; Meng, F.; Suri, S.; Ding, W.; Huang, F.; Wu, N. Chem. Commun., 2012, 48, 8213-8215]. It is observed that ERGO3 has higher positive and negative charge density compared to all the electrodes, also positive charge density is dominant over negative charge density in ERGO3. This makes ERGO3 to a p-type conducting material. To investigate the effect of the electronic property of the ERGO electrodes on the charge transport property at the electrolyte interface, the total impedance of the electrode was measured by varying the frequency of the AC signal from 1 MHz to 1 mHz at a constant DC potential in between +0.01 to +0.25 V. Variation of imaginary impedance with real impedance at each frequency constitutes the Nyquist plot of the electrode. FIG. 2 represent the Nyquist plots of ERGO1, ERGO2, and ERGO3 before and after addition of As.sup.3+ to the electrolyte, respectively. Each experimentally obtained Nyquist spectrum was fitted with the impedance spectrum of an electronic circuit shown in FIG. 2. Each circuit element of the equivalent circuit has its own physical significance to the interfacial charge transfer process. In FIG. 2, it is seen that each semicircle has two intercepts to the X-axis, first intercept corresponds to the equivalent series resistance (R.sub.s) and the second one is the charge transfer resistance (R.sub.ct). R.sub.s is mostly associated with the combined effect of solution conductivity and bulk electronic property of ERGO. Bulk electronic property is governed by the electron transport from the ERGO surface to the Au substrate through the stacking of multiple ERGO sheets. On the contrary, R.sub.ct is related to charge transfer kinetics at the ERGO/electrolyte interface. In FIG. 2, the change was observed in R.sub.s for all the test strips before and after addition of As.sup.3+. Before addition of As.sup.3+ to the electrolyte, an increasing tendency in R.sub.s is observed with increase in electro-reduction time of ERGO samples (ERGO1 to ERGO3). This anomaly is presumably due to the accumulation of positive surface charge at the ERGO surface which increases eventually the space charge capacitances at the interfaces of both metal/ERGO and ERGO/electrolyte. These space charge capacitances increase the R.sub.s subsequently. However, in presence of As.sup.3+, ERGO1 does not show any change in R.sub.s. This is associated with an insufficient concentration of free surface charges, as ERGO1 has lower positive charge density compared to other electrodes, which will facilitate the electrostatic interaction between H.sub.2AsO.sub.3.sup.- moiety and ERGO1 surface. However, enhancement of positive surface charge in both ERGO2 and ERGO3 compared to ERGO1 is sufficient enough to interact with negatively charged moiety. These surface adsorbed species on both ERGO2 and ERGO3 decrease space charge capacitances which lead to decrease in their series resistances further. On the other hand, there is no change of R.sub.ct even after exposure of As.sup.3+ on both ERGO1 and ERGO2, while a significant decrease of R.sub.ct in ERGO3 was observed. The significant decrease of R.sub.ct implies that charge transfer happens at the ERGO3/electrolyte interface through oxidation of As.sup.3+. Thus, ERGO3 was considered as an optimized electrode for As.sup.3+ sensing. Furthermore, sensitive and selective As.sup.3+ sensing of ERGO3 electrode were investigated through both CV and CA measurements. The results are shown in FIG. 3 and FIG. 4.
[0027] FIG. 3 shows the CV performed in As.sup.3+ solution with different potential scan rates. With slow potential scan rate, the diffusion layer grows much further from the electrode surface in comparison to a faster scan rate. This is attributed to the lower and higher current seen in the voltammogram. For an electrochemically reversible electron transfer processes involving freely diffusing redox species, the Randles-Sevcik equation describes a linear relationship between the peak current i.sub.p (A) with the square root of the scan rate ν (V s.sup.-1). [Elgrishi, N.; Rountree, K. J.; McCarthy, B. D.; Rountree, E. S.; Eisenhart, T. T.; and Dempsey, J. L. J. Chem. Educ. 2018, 95, 197-206]. Thus, to understand the interaction of electrochemical species with the electrode and electron transfer process involved in this interaction, we plotted scan rate dependent peak current (i.sub.p vs. ν.sup.0.5 and i.sub.p vs. ν) and corresponding results are shown in FIG. 3. We observed two distinct phenomena in FIG. 3 and its inset figure. Our results show both linear (i.sub.p vs. ν.sup.0.5) and nonlinear variation (i.sub.p vs. ν) of peak current, which suggests that adsorption of As.sup.3+ was occurred onto the active sites of the ERGO surface and adsorbed As.sup.3+ was oxidized subsequently upon application of potential. Surface defects on sp.sup.2 carbons of the basal plane of monolayer of ERGO film and the edges of that sheet are the most probable active sites for As.sup.3+ adsorption. During the potential sweep (negative to positive), As.sup.3+ species, which were adsorbed at the electrode surface, are oxidized at the same surface and oxidized species came into the solution. Linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) measurements were performed with different concentration of As.sup.3+, in order to verify that the peak appeared at +0.02 to +0.12 V in the voltammogram is the current response corresponding to As.sup.3+ oxidation exclusively. The voltammogram shown in FIG. 3 attributes to the increasing As.sup.3+ oxidation current with a gradual increase of As.sup.3+ concentration. This was verified by the IC measurements. For that, we performed continuous CV scans for 50 cycles (resulting voltammogram shown in FIG. 3) with 5 ppm of As.sup.3+ solution prepared in distilled water. Subsequently, IC measurement of the resulting solution was carried out after continuous CV cycles and the chronogram is shown in FIG. 3. In this figure, a sharp peak was observed at a retention time of ~23.25 min and this peak was assigned by measuring the chronogram with standard As.sup.5+ solutions of different concentrations. For that, 1, 3 and 5 ppm of As.sup.5+ solutions were purged to the IC column and chronogram was recorded correspondingly. In the chronogram, three peaks were observed with different intensity but at the same retention time. Therefore the peak observed at the retention time of ~23.25 min corresponds to As.sup.5+ only. Further, the specificity of As.sup.3+ response was studied in presence of different heavy metal ions. This was demonstrated by performing CV individually in presence of few heavy metal ions (As.sup.5+, Fe.sup.2+, Cu.sup.2+, and Mn.sup.2+) with same ERGO strip. In FIG. 3, there is no peak appeared in the voltammograms with each of the heavy metal ions. Thus, it concludes that ERGO3 shows electrochemical inertness to the aforementioned four metal ions in this potential window (-0.4 to +0.4 V). Although, there is an appearance of both oxidation (+0.25 to +0.4 V) and reduction peak (+0.17 V) of Mn.sup.2+, however, the peak positions are different compared to As.sup.3+ (+0.02 to 0.12 V). This is further verified with CA measurements in the following section.
[0028] CA measurements were performed by keeping the potential fixed in between +0.02 to +0.12 V and measurement was continued for 30 s in each CA scan. Before starting analytical measurements, the surface of the ERGO3 electrode was passivated by performing continuous CA cycles with PBS at the same potential and current was recorded simultaneously. For analysis purpose, the current value was chosen at 25 s in each chronogram. In FIG. 4, initial ten data points are referred to the CA current measured with blank PBS using ERGO3 electrode, while next four cycles show the current response of 70 nA by the same electrode using 1 ppm of As.sup.3+ spiked into the solution. In order to check that ERGO3 is exclusively responsible for As.sup.3+ sensing, we carried out a control experiment by measuring the CA current of a bare metal strip with four individual heavy metal ions (As.sup.5+, Cu.sup.2+, Fe.sup.2+, and Mn.sup.2+) including As.sup.3+ and the result is displayed in the inset of FIG. 4. The concentration of each ion was maintained with 1 ppm. CA profile displays that bare metal strip did not exhibit any response with each of these heavy metal ions. Thus, it is confirmed that ERGO3 is only responsible for As.sup.3+ sensing. Specific As.sup.3+ response exhibited by the ERGO3 electrode was also tested by measuring CA current using four individual heavy metal ions (As.sup.5+, Cu.sup.2+, Fe.sup.2+, and Mn.sup.2+) of 1 ppm. The measurement was carried out at +0.02 to +0.12 V with 200 ppb of As.sup.3+. Between two successive set of measurements with two interfering metal ions, As.sup.3+ response was tested with the same electrode strip to study the repeatability of the specific response to As.sup.3+ and the result is shown in FIG. 4. Thus, ERGO3 exhibits the current response only with As.sup.3+ and hence, ERGO3 is highly specific to As.sup.3+. To determine the LOD of As.sup.3+ response by the ERGO3 electrode, CA measurements were performed with various As.sup.3+ concentrations within a range starting from 200 to 5 ppb. Same experiment was repeated thrice using the same strip and the results are shown in FIG. 4. We calculated further statistical average of three sets of current for each concentration of As.sup.3+ and plotted them as a function of As.sup.3+ concentration as shown in FIG. 4. It was seen that lower limit of the concentration that could be detected confidently was less than10 ppb within a standard deviation of 5% and the experiment was highly reproducible for other strips also. Since ERGO3 is highly selective to As.sup.3+ in PBS and thus it is needed to demonstrate the selectivity of ERGO3 in different field samples which were expected to be of different conductivity. Thus, the effect of solution conductivity was checked by CA measurements using PBS solutions of different conductivity with the same concentration of As.sup.3+.
[0029] Thus, PBS solutions of different conductivity were prepared by changing their ionic concentrations and used them further as electrolytes during CA measurements. Same experiment was repeated three times with each of the PBS solutions of different conductivity and 1 ppm of As.sup.3+ was spiked simultaneously into the PBS solution during a CA scan. The results are shown in FIG. 5. It was seen that CA current was almost constant even if we change the conductivity of the same solution by eightfold. Therefore, it confirms that ERGO3 strip can mimic the specific electrochemical response to As.sup.3+ similar to the electrochemical activity of a redox enzyme (arsenite oxidase). In this context, we studied further the CA measurements with various field water samples which are presumably having different conductivity and TDS (total dissolved solids) level, and the corresponding chronogram is shown in FIG. 5. All the field water samples which were used in CA measurements were collected from different locations of South 24 Parganas district of West Bengal, India. Before starting the CA measurements with field water samples, the total As concentration of all the water samples was measured by ICPMS and no As was found in those water samples. The current responses of all the field water samples were measured with respect to the current response of blank PBS. Before starting CA measurements with field water samples, As.sup.3+ response was tested with ERGO3 strip for three scans followed by the same measurements performed with different field samples. It was seen that ERGO3 shows the negative current response in presence of field water samples with respect to the current response of blank PBS. But the amplitude of the current responses of all the field samples was almost equal, although there were differences in both conductivity and TDS among of them. Variation of TDS and conductivity of all the measured field samples is shown in FIG. 5. A negative response by ERGO3 strips with field water samples was unforeseen and it is affected by the presence of some other ions (cations or anions) or molecules except a few cations (As.sup.5+, Cu.sup.2+, Fe.sup.2+, and Mn.sup.2+) which were tested previously during interference measurements. In addition, arsenic response of the ERGO3 strip was checked simultaneously in both PBS and field samples with spiking of 1 ppm As.sup.3+ into these. The results are depicted in FIG. 5. In both cases, As.sup.3+ response was observed; however, the amplitude of the current response of As.sup.3+ in field water sample is lower than the response in PBS alone. The decrease in response current with 1 ppm As.sup.3+ in field sample with respect to As.sup.3+ response in PBS, was also observed in the two voltammograms shown in FIG. 5. Voltammogram of As.sup.3+ response in PBS is shown in the inset of FIG. 5. In both PBS and FWS (F1), As.sup.3+ of 1 ppm was spiked into each of the solutions during voltammetry measurements and the peak position (~ in between +0.02 to +0.12 V for PBS and + 0.12 to +0.25 V for FWS) corresponding to arsenic response in the two voltammograms is different from each other. Furthermore, the LOD of As.sup.3+ response was determined in field samples. FIG. 5 represents the linear variation of response current with different As.sup.3+ dosages spiked into same field water and it is recognized that LOD of As.sup.3+ in field water is10- 25 ppb. Both reusability and performance stability tests of the ERGO3 strips were checked for device application.
[0030] For that, CV was performed with freshly prepared ERGO strips using 1 ppm As.sup.3+ and same measurement was carried out with the same strip after two months. In this period, several electrochemical measurements were done with the same electrode. The results are shown in both FIG. 6. It showed that CVs are almost identical in both cases, which confirm the stability of the electrode’s performance for reusability. Our ERGO electrode is used as a sensing platform and the electrochemical oxidation current of As.sup.3+ by the electrode is recorded with any commercially available handheld potentiostat (for example, Rhodeostat) as shown in FIG. 6.
[0031] Hence, in the present invention, we developed reusable ERGO (here, ERGO3) test strip which was optimized electronically through structural modification of it among other electrodes for highly selective and sensitive to As.sup.3+.
[0032] Furthermore, we propose a sensing mechanism of ERGO3 electrode based on the IR spectroscopy results which are shown in FIG. 7. FTIR spectra shown in FIG. 7 were collected at ERGO3 with and without As.sup.3+. To study the effect of As.sup.3+ adsorption, we put 10 .Math.L of 1000 ppm As.sup.3+ solution on ERGO3 and dried the sample subsequently before IR spectroscopy measurements. Both the spectrum exhibited characteristics peaks of different functional groups. Some of them are in-plane of ERGO and rest of are out of the plane of ERGO sheets. FIG. 7 showed the characteristic bands related to C—O (epoxy at 950 cm.sup.-1), C—O (alkoxy at 1055 cm.sup.-1), C—O—C (at 1230 cm.sup.-1), and C—OH (at 1430 cm.sup.-1) which are present generally along the edges of ERGO sheets. While C═O bonds in carboxylic acid and carbonyl moieties are present not only along the sheet edges but also on the plane of graphene sheets. The stretching vibration of C═O appears at 1720 cm.sup.-1, while the C—O (epoxy) stretching vibration peak was observed at 980 cm.sup.-1, and the C—O (alkoxy) stretching peak was at 1055 cm.sup.-1. However, a small hump was noticed at 1580 cm.sup.-1 which is due to the asymmetric stretching of sp.sup.2 hybridized C═C [Acik, M., Lee, G., Mattevi, C., Pirkle, A., Wallace, R. M., Chhowalla, M., Cho, K., Chabal, Y. J. Phys. Chem. C 2011, 115, 19761-19781]. Both vibration and deformation peaks of O—H were observed at 3380 (not shown in FIG. 7) and 1430 cm.sup.-1, respectively. With As.sup.3+ (H.sub.2AsO.sub.3.sup.1-) exposure on the electrode, the peak intensity of O—H deformation peak was increased for both the electrodes. However, this peak was increased drastically in ERGO3 electrode. Increase of O—H deformation peak was attributed due to the binding of H.sub.2AsO.sub.3.sup.-1 moieties with ERGO3 electrode because of positive surface charges of ERGO3 favoured electrostatic interaction between the surface of ERGO3 and negatively charged H.sub.2AsO.sub.3.sup.1- moieties. In addition, the stretching frequency of C═O is diminished selectively upon exposure of As.sup.3+ to the ERGO3 electrode (solid grey trace of FIG. 7)). Furthermore, we performed IR measurements with the same electrode strip as control experiments to confirm that As.sup.3+ ions were bounded chemically with ERGO3 surface and those were not physisorbed on the surface. In the control experiments, we performed FTIR of bare ERGO3 strip and the same strip after different treatments with As.sup.3+. The results are shown in FIG. 7. In this Figure, it is seen that all the peaks (marked with dotted line) are unchanged except the two peaks at 1430 and 1720 cm.sup.-1. Bare ERGO3 (solid black trace) shows possible vibration features of all bonds associated with functional groups of ERGO surface. But upon exposure of As.sup.3+ (solid grey trace, 1720 cm.sup.-1 feature has vanished from the spectrum (highlighted with grey box) and peak at 1430 cm.sup.-1 appears concurrently. This result is consistent with FIG. 7. The disappearance of 1720 cm.sup.-1 is explained by the nucleophilic reaction of H.sub.2AsO.sub.3.sup.-1 moieties to the C═O bonds of COOH groups of ERGO3. The reaction mechanism which is involved with the disappearance of the C═O feature upon exposure of As.sup.3+ has been shown in FIG. 7. After vigorous washing of the same strips with DI water, we performed IR measurements further with the same electrode and the spectrum is displayed in FIG. 7 (solid light grey trace). We observe that all the major peaks remain the same but there is a slight decrease in intensity. Nevertheless, the peak at 1430 cm.sup.-1 remains unchanged and the peak at 1720 cm.sup.-1 is still disappeared. However, after electrochemical oxidation at a potential in between+0.1 to +0.25 V, the IR spectrum (black dotted trace) exhibits same spectral feature as of bare ERGO3. This results in the disappearance of C—OH stretching frequency, while the resonance frequency of the C═O bond appears in the same spectrum. In this process, As.sup.3+ ions which were adsorbed or bonded to the surface of ERGO3 were released subsequently into the solution as oxidized species (HAsO.sub.4.sup.2-) after application of a potential to the same strip. We further studied the interaction of other interfering ions with ERGO3 electrode and the spectra are shown in FIG. 7. It is seen that there is no quenching of the C═O peak upon exposure of interfering ions. Hence, we can infer that there is no nucleophilic interaction of other ions with ERGO3 electrode and therefore there is no change in the spectral feature of ERGO3 in presence of interfering ions. But, in presence of As.sup.3+ along with interfering ions, C═O peak disappears while C—OH becomes visible consequently. Hence, these IR results confirm selective adsorption of As.sup.3+ on the surface of ERGO3 and released from the surface after application of potential at the electrode.
[0033] It may be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the drawings, examples and detailed description herein are to be regarded in an illustrative rather than a restrictive manner.
