COMPONENT FOR A STRETCHABLE ELECTRONIC DEVICE

Abstract

A method of manufacturing a component for a stretchable electronic device comprises providing a silicon wafer comprising a first surface and a second surface; applying a layer of a conductive metal onto at least a portion of the first surface of the silicon wafer; providing a stretchable silicone substrate having a first surface and a second surface; and plasma bonding at least a portion of the second surface of the silicon wafer to at least a portion of the first surface of the stretchable silicone substrate.

Claims

1. A method of manufacturing a component for a stretchable electronic device, comprising: providing a silicon wafer comprising a first surface and a second surface; applying a layer of a conductive metal onto at least a portion of the first surface of the silicon wafer; providing a stretchable silicone substrate having a first surface and a second surface; and plasma bonding at least a portion of the second surface of the silicon wafer to at least a portion of the first surface of the stretchable silicone substrate.

2. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the method further comprises etching at least a portion of the first surface of the silicon wafer before the step of attaching the layer of a conductive metal onto at least a portion of the first surface of the silicon wafer.

3. The method as claimed in claim 2, wherein at least a portion of the first surface of the silicon wafer is nanoporous.

4. The method as claimed in claim 2, wherein the step of etching at least a portion of the first surface of the silicon wafer comprises metal-assisted chemical etching.

5. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the conductive metal comprises one or more of copper, gold, nickel, cadmium, rhodium, platinum, silver and zinc.

6. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the step of attaching a layer of a conductive metal onto at least a portion of the first surface of the silicon wafer comprises electroplating.

7. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein at least a portion of the stretchable silicone substrate comprises a plurality of conductive particle fillers and/or one or more conductive liquids dispersed in a silicone polymer matrix.

8. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the stretchable silicone substrate comprises a first layer and a second layer, the first layer of the stretchable silicone substrate comprising the first surface of the stretchable silicone substrate, and the second layer of the stretchable silicone substrate comprising the second surface of the stretchable silicone substrate, wherein the first layer of the stretchable silicone substrate comprises a plurality of conductive particle fillers and/or one or more conductive liquids dispersed in a silicone polymer matrix.

9. The method as claimed in claim 8, wherein the first layer of the stretchable silicone substrate comprises carbon black-filled polydimethylsiloxane (CB-PDMS) and the second layer of the stretchable silicone substrate comprises polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS).

10. The method as claimed in claim 9, wherein the carbon black has a concentration of between 5% to 20% in the polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) in the first layer of the stretchable silicone substrate.

11. The method as claimed in claim 8, wherein the second layer of the stretchable silicone substrate has a thickness that is greater than a thickness of the first layer of the stretchable silicone substrate.

12. The method as claimed in claim 8, wherein the step of providing a stretchable silicone substrate comprises printing the first layer of the stretchable silicone substrate on top of at least a portion of the second layer of the stretchable silicone substrate, and subsequently curing the first layer of the stretchable silicone substrate and the second layer of the stretchable silicone substrate.

13. The method as claimed in claim 12, wherein the step of curing the first layer of the stretchable silicone substrate and the second layer of the stretchable silicone substrate comprises a curing time of less than or equal to one hour and/or a curing temperature of less than or equal to 150 degrees centigrade.

14. The method as claimed in claim 1, further comprising soldering one or more electronic components onto the layer of a conductive metal.

15. The method as claimed in claim 14, wherein the step of soldering comprises tin soldering.

16. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the step of plasma bonding at least a portion of the second surface of the silicon wafer to at least a portion of the first surface of the stretchable silicone substrate comprises treating at least a portion of the second surface of the silicon wafer and at least a portion of the first surface of the stretchable silicone substrate in 100% O2 plasma for an operating time of approximately 35 seconds.

17. The method as claimed in claim 16, wherein the step of plasma bonding at least a portion of the second surface of the silicon wafer to at least a portion of the first surface of the stretchable silicone substrate further comprises providing conformal contact between at least a portion of the second surface of the silicon wafer and at least a portion of the first surface of the stretchable silicone substrate and applying pressure to at least a portion of the second surface of the silicon wafer and at least a portion of the first surface of the stretchable silicone substrate for approximately 30 seconds.

18. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the step of plasma bonding at least a portion of the second surface of the silicon wafer to at least a portion of the first surface of the stretchable silicone substrate comprises providing a mask to the first surface of the stretchable silicone substrate such that only one or more predetermined areas of the first surface of the stretchable silicone substrate are plasma bonded to at least a portion of the second surface of the silicon wafer.

19. A component for a stretchable electronic device, the component comprising: a silicon wafer comprising a first surface and a second surface; a conductive metal layer applied to at least a portion of the first surface of the silicon wafer; and a stretchable silicone substrate having a first surface and a second surface, wherein at least a portion of the first surface of the stretchable silicone substrate is covalently bonded to at least a portion of the second surface of the silicon wafer.

20. A stretchable electronic device comprising a component as claimed in claim 19, and further comprising one or more electronic components soldered to the conductive metal layer.

21. A device for measuring chest expansion and deformation rate, comprising a stretchable electronic device as claimed in claim 20, and a silicone chest strap, wherein at least a portion of the stretchable silicone substrate is attached to or integrally formed with the silicone chest strap.

22. A device for rehabilitation, comprising a stretchable electronic device as claimed in claim 20, and a silicone ball, wherein the stretchable electronic device is fully embedded in the silicone ball.

23. A device for rehabilitation, comprising a stretchable electronic device as claimed in claim 20, and a silicone strap, wherein at least a portion of the stretchable silicone substrate is attached to or integrally formed with the silicone strap.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0140] The present disclosure may be carried out in various ways and embodiments of the disclosure will now be described by way of example with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which:

[0141] FIG. 1 shows a schematic exploded view of a stretchable electronic device;

[0142] FIG. 2 shows a schematic representation of a method of fabricating a stretchable silicone substrate;

[0143] FIG. 3A shows a schematic cross-sectional view of a pristine silicon wafer;

[0144] FIG. 3B shows a schematic cross-sectional view of the silicon wafer shown in FIG. 3A, after it has been etched using metal-assisted chemical etching;

[0145] FIG. 3C shows a schematic cross-sectional view of the etched silicon wafer shown in FIG. 3B, after it has had a layer of copper electroplated on top of it;

[0146] FIG. 3D shows a cross-sectional SEM image of the silicon wafer shown in FIG. 3A

[0147] FIG. 3E shows a cross-sectional SEM image of the etched silicon wafer shown in FIG. 3B;

[0148] FIG. 3F shows a cross-sectional SEM image of the etched silicon wafer and the layer of copper as shown in FIG. 3C;

[0149] FIG. 4A shows a schematic isometric view of a stretchable electronic device;

[0150] FIG. 4B shows a schematic cross-sectional view of the stretchable electronic device shown in FIG. 4A;

[0151] FIG. 4C shows a cross-sectional optical monography image of a component of the stretchable electronic device shown in FIGS. 4A and 4B;

[0152] FIG. 5A shows the dependence of break stress and strain of a component compared with a prior art component, for varying carbon black filler concentrations;

[0153] FIG. 5B shows the ultimate stress and strain at fail during a single stretch from rest for polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) samples with different contacts;

[0154] FIG. 5C shows the piezoresistive behaviour of carbon black-filled polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) sample with different contacts;

[0155] FIG. 6A shows the resistance after 20 cycles of strain and release at different strain levels of a component compared with a prior art component;

[0156] FIG. 6B shows a demonstration of the break mechanism of a component compared with a prior art component;

[0157] FIG. 7A shows current-voltage curves for components using lightly doped p-type and n-type silicon;

[0158] FIG. 7B shows a Schottky junction band diagram for a component having a p-type silicon contact and for a component having an n-type silicon contact;

[0159] FIG. 7C shows an equivalent circuit representing the assemblies shown in FIG. 7B as Schottky junctions in appropriate directions;

[0160] FIG. 8A shows a device for measuring expansion and deformation rate;

[0161] FIG. 8B shows a user wearing the device of FIG. 8A;

[0162] FIG. 8C shows physiological data collected from chest expansion during inhalation and exhalation of a user wearing the device of FIG. 8A, recorded as changes in resistance;

[0163] FIG. 9A shows a device for rehabilitation;

[0164] FIG. 9B shows a device for rehabilitation;

[0165] FIG. 9C shows a cross-sectional view of the device shown in FIG. 9B;

[0166] FIG. 9D shows a user holding the device of FIG. 9A;

[0167] FIG. 9E shows a user softly gripping the device of FIG. 9A:

[0168] FIG. 9F shows a user tightly gripping the device of FIG. 9A;

[0169] FIG. 9G shows resistance data collected using the device of FIG. 9A during exercise at light gripping pressure and tight gripping pressure at different exercise rates;

[0170] FIG. 9H shows resistance data collected using the device of FIG. 9A by applying different pressures and recording stepwise transitions of electrical signal;

[0171] FIG. 9I shows resistance data collected using the device of FIG. 9A;

[0172] FIG. 10 shows a device for rehabilitation;

[0173] FIG. 11A shows an electron micrograph of a copper-p-type-silicon interface;

[0174] FIG. 11B shows an electron micrograph of an unetched copper-silicon interface;

[0175] FIG. 11O shows energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectra for copper and silicon taken from the cross-section of electroplated p-type-silicon shown in FIG. 11A;

[0176] FIG. 11D shows EDX spectra for copper and silicon from the cross-section of electroplated unetched silicon shown in FIG. 11B;

[0177] FIG. 12A shows electron micrographs of the surfaces of various silicon wafers and p-type silicon samples;

[0178] FIG. 12B shows maximum stress values for copper-p-type-silicon samples experimentally pulled to failure;

[0179] FIG. 12C shows representative photographs of the samples tested in FIG. 12B;

[0180] FIG. 13 shows the dependence of maximum strain at failure of copper-p-type-silicon and silver-epoxy contacts in relation to carbon-black filler concentrations in a CB-PDMS layer;

[0181] FIG. 14 shows scanning electron microscope (SEM) micrographs for the surface of a CB-PDMS sample before and after stretching;

[0182] FIG. 15 shows the results from maximum stress experiments performed on different PDMS samples;

[0183] FIG. 16A shows strain values for copper-p-type-silicon contact samples during cyclic stretching;

[0184] FIG. 16B shows strain values for silver-Epoxy contacts during cyclic stretching;

[0185] FIG. 17A shows representative curves for electrical hysteresis due to previous loading demonstrated on a CB-PDMS layered composite;

[0186] FIG. 17B shows mechanical hysteresis during cyclic stretching tests;

[0187] FIG. 18 shows a schematic view of a four-probe measurement setup to determine the change of contact resistance at different strain levels; and

[0188] FIG. 19 shows the resistance of a CB-PDMS layered composite with copper-p-type-silicon contacts as a function of temperature.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0189] FIG. 1 shows a schematic exploded view of a stretchable electronic device 1. The stretchable electronic device 1 comprises a component 1a and one or more electronic components 5. The component 1a includes a silicon wafer 2, a layer of a conductive metal 3 and a stretchable silicone substrate 4.

[0190] The silicon wafer 2 has a first surface 2a and a second surface 2b. In the example shown in FIG. 1, the silicon wafer 2 is quadrilateral. Though, it is envisaged that the silicon wafer 2 may have any other shape. For example, the silicon wafer 2 may be circular. The silicon wafer 2 has a thickness of approximately 525 μm.

[0191] The layer of a conductive metal 3 has a first surface 3a and a second surface 3b. The layer of a conductive metal 3 is arranged adjacent to the silicon wafer 2. In particular, the second surface 3b of the layer of a conductive metal 3 is arranged adjacent the first surface 2a of the silicon wafer 2. More particularly, the layer of a conductive metal 3 (specifically the second surface 3b thereof) is applied onto at least a portion of the first surface 2a of the silicon wafer 2. In the example shown in FIG. 1, the layer of a conductive metal 3 is quadrilateral. Though, it is envisaged that the layer of a conductive metal 3 may have any other shape. The layer of a conductive metal 3 has a thickness of approximately 1 μm.

[0192] The stretchable silicone substrate 4 has a first surface 4a and a second surface 4b. The stretchable silicone substrate 4 is arranged adjacent to the silicon wafer 2. In particular, the first surface 4a of the stretchable silicone substrate 4 is arranged adjacent the second surface 2b of the silicon wafer 2. More particularly, the stretchable silicone substrate 4 (specifically at least a portion of the first surface 4a thereof) is plasma bonded to the silicon wafer 2 (specifically to at least a portion of the second surface 2b thereof). In the example shown in FIG. 1, the stretchable silicone substrate 4 is quadrilateral. Though, it is envisaged that the stretchable silicone substrate 4 may have any other shape. For example, the stretchable silicone substrate 4 may have any two-dimensional shape such as a circle, or any three-dimensional shape such as a cuboid or sphere.

[0193] The one or more electronic components 5 are arranged adjacent the layer of a conductive metal 3. In particular, the one or more electronic components 5 are arranged adjacent the first surface 3a of the layer of a conductive metal 3.

[0194] The silicon wafer 2 comprises crystalline silicon and is a lightly doped p-type silicon wafer.

[0195] The layer of a conductive metal 3 comprises copper. Though, it is envisaged that the layer of a conductive metal 3 may comprise any suitable metal. For example, the layer of a conductive metal 3 may comprise, for example, one or more of copper, gold, nickel, cadmium, rhodium, platinum, silver and zinc.

[0196] The stretchable silicone substrate 4 comprises a first layer 6 and a second layer 7. The first layer 6 of the stretchable silicone substrate 4 comprises the first surface 4a of the stretchable silicone substrate 4, and the second layer 7 of the stretchable silicone substrate 4 comprises the second surface 4b of the stretchable silicone substrate 4. This is shown in the schematic cross-sectional view of FIG. 4B, and also in the schematic isometric view of FIG. 4A, which both show a stretchable electronic device 1 similar to the stretchable electronic device 1 shown in FIG. 1. Although FIG. 4B shows a cross-sectional view of the stretchable electronic device 1 shown in FIG. 4A, the cross-sectional view of FIG. 4B also demonstrates a cross-section of the stretchable electronic device 1 shown in FIG. 1. The first layer 6 of the stretchable silicone substrate 4 has a thickness of approximately 1 μm. The second layer 7 of the stretchable silicone substrate 4 has a thickness of approximately 3 mm.

[0197] The first layer 6 of the stretchable silicone substrate 4 comprises carbon black-filled polydimethylsiloxane (CB-PDMS), and the second layer 7 of the stretchable silicone substrate 4 comprises polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). Though, it is envisaged that the first layer 6 of the stretchable silicone substrate 4 may comprise any other silicone material comprising a plurality of conductive particle fillers and/or one or more conductive liquids dispersed in a silicone polymer matrix, and/or that the second layer 7 of the stretchable silicone substrate 4 may comprise any other suitable silicone material. The concentration of carbon black, or other conductive particle fillers or conductive liquids in the first layer 6 of the stretchable silicone substrate 4 may be chosen, during the process of designing the stretchable silicone substrate 4, to optimise the resistance and binding strength of the stretchable silicone substrate 4. The optimum concentration of carbon black in the CB-PDMS first layer 6 of the stretchable silicone substrate 4 has been found to be between 5-20%, preferably 12%. Advantageously, such a carbon black concentration can provide an optimum electrical resistance in the first layer 6 of the stretchable silicone substrate 4. Furthermore, such a carbon black concentration may balance the effects of conductivity increasing with carbon black content, with the agglomeration of carbon black particles on the surface of the first layer 6 of the stretchable silicone substrate 4. Advantageously, balancing these effects prevents a reduction in the adhesive interaction of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) with carbon black (CB). In addition, such a carbon black concentration may provide a low electrical resistance in the first layer 6 of the stretchable silicone substrate 4, when the component 1a is configured to operate with a 3.3V and/or 5V circuit, and may also provide high binding strength.

[0198] Advantageously, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) provides for reduced cost and ease of manufacture of the component 1a. Advantageously, having carbon black or other conductive particle fillers or conductive liquids in the first layer 6 of the stretchable silicone substrate 4 provides the stretchable silicone substrate with improved long-term chemical and mechanical stability, and a low cost. Furthermore, having carbon black or other conductive particle fillers or conductive liquids in the first layer 6 of the stretchable silicone substrate 4 may also provide the component 1a with tunable mechanical and/or electrical properties.

[0199] The one or more electronic components 5 comprises one or more wires, integrated circuits, resistors, capacitors, microcontrollers, and/or other solid-state electronic components. In FIGS. 1, 4A and 4B, just one exemplary schematic electronic component 5 is shown, for the sake of simplicity and clarity.

[0200] With reference firstly to FIG. 2, an exemplary method of manufacturing a component 1a and stretchable electronic device 1 as shown in FIGS. 1, 4A and 4B shall now be described.

[0201] To obtain the PDMS second layer 7 of the stretchable silicone substrate 4, a curing agent and a base elastomer are mixed, degassed, and cured at 100 degrees centigrade.

[0202] To obtain the CB-PDMS first layer 6 of the stretchable silicone substrate 4, sonication, solvent removal, and a curing agent are applied to a base elastomer and a suspension of powdered carbon black, 50 nm particle size, in hexane.

[0203] Next, by a process of elastomer-on-elastomer printing, the CB-PDMS first layer 6 is printed on top of the PDMS second layer 7. A stencil mask 8 is applied onto the PDMS second layer 7 such that the CB-PDMS first layer 6 covers only a portion of the surface of the PDMS second layer 7. The stencil mask 8 is cut using a 002-beam cutter. Once the CB-PDMS first layer 6 has been printed onto the PDMS second layer 7, the first layer 6 and the second layer 7 are cured in an oven for one hour, at a temperature of 100 degrees centigrade. Though, it is envisaged that a curing time of less than one hour and/or a temperature of less than or equal to 150 degrees centigrade may also be used. Advantageously, a curing time of less than one hour may provide for reduced particle transfer of the plurality of conductive particle fillers and/or one or more conductive liquids from the first layer 6 of the stretchable silicone substrate 4 to the second layer 7 of the stretchable silicone substrate 4, which would otherwise disrupt the percolation network and lower the conductivity of the first layer 6 of the stretchable silicone substrate 4. Advantageously, a curing temperature of less than 150 degrees centigrade enables the plurality of conductive particle fillers and/or one or more conductive liquids in the first layer 6 of the stretchable silicone substrate 4 to establish good contact prior to gelation. It is also envisaged that if the temperature is less than 150 degrees centigrade, a curing time of up to 48 hours may be used.

[0204] In the example shown in FIG. 2, the first layer 6 and the second layer 7 are shown as being quadrilateral, for the sake of simplicity and clarity. Though, it is envisaged that the first layer 6 and/or the second layer 7 may be any other shape, as the above described process is applicable to more complex shapes.

[0205] In order to apply the layer of a conductive metal 3, which in the examples described above and shown in FIGS. 1, 3C and 4 comprises copper, firstly, the first surface 2a of the silicon wafer 2 is plated electrolessly with silver and the second surface 2b of the silicon wafer 2 is covered with a polyimide film/sheet. Plating silver onto the first surface 2a of the silicon wafer 2 serves to assist the etching process, and covering the second surface 2b of the silicon wafer 2 protects said surface to preserve an atomically flat surface ideal for conformal plasma bonding later with the stretchable silicone substrate 4. The layer of polyimide is later removed from the second surface 2b of the silicon wafer 2. Next, the first surface 2a of the silicon wafer 2 is placed in an etching solution containing H.sub.2O.sub.2 and hydrogen fluoride in order to provide the first surface 2a with a nanoporous surface. In other words, the first surface 2a of the silicon wafer 2 is etched so that it is roughened and becomes nanoporous. Metal-assisted chemical etching is used. The second surface 2b of the silicon wafer 2 is not etched and is smooth compared with the first surface 2a of the silicon wafer 2. Then, the layer of a conductive metal 3, which comprises copper, is deposited on top of the roughened, nanoporous first surface 2a of the silicon wafer 2 using electroplating. The copper electroplating is performed in a 0.8 M CuSO.sub.4 aqueous solution with a few drops of ethanol, using a platinum wire as the anode an applying a current density of 0.20 mAcm.sup.−1 for 15 minutes.

[0206] Advantageously, etching at least a portion of the first surface 2a of the silicon wafer 2 provides for increased surface contact adhesion between the silicon wafer 2 and the layer of a conductive metal 3. This advantageously enables soldering to take place on the component 1a. Furthermore, etching at least a portion of the first surface 2a of the silicon wafer 2 may also provide for a reduction or even a complete elimination of the need to have an interfacial layer between the silicon wafer 2 and the layer of a conductive metal 3.

[0207] FIG. 3A shows the silicon wafer 2 before the first surface 2a of the silicon wafer 2 is etched. FIG. 3B shows the silicon wafer 2 after the first surface 2a of the silicon wafer 2 has been etched. FIG. 3C shows the layer of a conductive metal 3 electroplated on the roughened first surface 2a of the silicon wafer 2. FIGS. 3D-F show cross-sectional SEM images taken of the silicon wafer 2 and the layer of a conductive metal 3 as schematically shown in cross-section in FIGS. 3A-C respectively.

[0208] In order to bond the second surface 2b of the silicon wafer 2 to the first surface 4a of the stretchable silicone substrate 4, plasma bonding is used. Firstly, after being cleaned using acetone, the stretchable silicone substrate 4 and the second surface 2b of the silicon wafer 2 are treated in 100% O2 plasma for an operating time of 35 seconds, using, for example, a Gala Instrumente Plasma Prep 5 Cleaner. Advantageously, treating said surfaces in 100% O2 plasma activates said surfaces by generation of a silicon oxide layer. Next, the silicon wafer 2 is arranged/held adjacent the stretchable silicone substrate 4 with a gap of approximately 40 mm therebetween, while the one or more electronic components 5 are soldered onto the layer of a conductive metal 3 (specifically, onto the first surface 3a of the layer of a conductive metal 3) using tin solder. Advantageously, this provides for the formation of irreversible bonding by metal alloying between the one of more electronic components 5 and the layer of a conductive metal 3. The component 1a has reliable interfacial adhesion between the stretchable silicone substrate 4 and the one or more electronic components 5, and has an improved tensile strength in contact adhesion between the stretchable silicone substrate 4 and the one or more electronic components 5. Furthermore, using soldering in the manufacturing process is minimally disruptive to large scale production. Next, the second surface 2b of the silicon wafer 2 is bonded to the first surface 4a of the stretchable silicone substrate 4 by providing conformal contact between the second surface 2b of the silicon wafer 2 and the first surface 4a of the stretchable silicone substrate 4. Then, light pressure is applied (for example, simply by pressing the silicon wafer 2 and the stretchable silicone substrate 4 together using one's hands) to the silicon wafer 2 and the stretchable silicone substrate 4 for approximately 30 seconds. Care should be taken to not press down on the one or more electronic components 5 too much, as deformation of the elastic, activated stretchable silicone substrate 4 may break some of the newly-formed bonds. Next, the assembly is left to stabilise at room temperature for approximately 3 days.

[0209] In the example shown in FIG. 1, the silicon wafer 2 is configured to cover the entire surface of the stretchable silicone substrate 4. However, as shown in FIG. 4A for example, it is also envisaged that only a portion of the second surface 2b of the silicon wafer 2 may be bonded to only a portion of the first surface 4a of the stretchable silicone substrate 4. In other words, the silicon wafer 2 does not need to cover the entirety of the first surface 4a of the stretchable silicone substrate 4. Accordingly, a mask (not shown), which may for example be made out of a polymer film, can be used to expose only one or more predetermined areas of the first surface 4a of the stretchable silicone substrate 4 to the plasma treatment/plasma bonding process. Siloxane cross-linking occurs on the surface of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) after plasma treatment, which makes the surface locally more brittle, so using a mask can help preserve the mechanical properties of the stretchable silicone substrate 4.

[0210] Plasma bonding the silicon wafer 2 to the stretchable silicone substrate 4 provides covalent bonding between the silicon wafer 2 and the stretchable silicone substrate 4, specifically between at least a portion of the second surface 2b of the silicon wafer 2 and at least a portion of the first surface 4a of the stretchable silicone substrate 4b. The cross-sectional view of FIG. 4B illustrates the covalent bonding between the silicon wafer 2 and the stretchable silicone substrate 4 and the penetration of copper in the layer of a conductive metal 3 with the roughened first surface 2a of the silicon wafer 2.

[0211] Advantageously, the component 1a provides a means to bond silicones to stretchable electronics, and the component 1a has significantly reduced complexity, reduced manufacturing time, lower operational costs, improved miniaturisation, improved versatility, improved applicability, improved imperceptibility, reduced weight, and reduced manufacturing cost. In addition, the component 1a provides improved adhesion force between hard and soft electronics in a strain sensing system. In particular, the component 1a has increased mechanical strength, durability and reliability. More particularly, the component 1a can withstand large stresses and/or strains and is thus suitable for use in a wearable device, where reliability under fast strain rates and tensile forces is essential, for example where forces larger than 2 MPa may typically be exerted.

[0212] Advantageously, the component 1a also provides reliable interfacial adhesion between soft stretchable electronic elements (such as the stretchable silicone substrate) and conventional inelastic hard electronics. Plasma bonding the silicon wafer 2 to the stretchable silicone substrate 4 exploits the chemistry of silicon and silicone and provides a reliable interface by covalent bonding.

[0213] Furthermore, the fabrication process for manufacturing the component 1a is simple, in that the component can be manufactured in a standard laboratory environment, i.e. without the need for advanced facilities such as a clean room. The component 1a is therefore suitable for large scale manufacturing under normal conditions.

[0214] Additionally, the component 1a and the stretchable electronic device 1 provide for creating solderable, mechanically robust, electrical contacts to interface silicone-based strain sensors with conventional solid-state (hard) electronics.

[0215] Plasma bonding at least a portion of the second surface 2b of the silicon wafer 2 to at least a portion of the first surface 4a of the stretchable silicone substrate 4 provides for covalent and conformal adhesion between the silicon wafer 2 and the stretchable silicone substrate 4. Advantageously, this provides for a strong and reliable bond between the silicon wafer 2 and the stretchable silicone substrate 4. In addition, advantageously, the stretchable silicone substrate 4 remains stretchable even after being bonded to the silicon wafer 2.

[0216] In addition, the component 1a has improved elasticity.

[0217] Furthermore, the component 1a has improved interfacial adhesion such that the component 1a may fail in an abrupt manner rather than in a gradual manner. For example, when the component 1a is used in a stretchable electronic device 1 configured to measure a signal, if one or more of the interface between the layer of a conductive metal 3 and the silicon wafer 2 or the interface between the silicon wafer 2 and the stretchable silicone substrate 4 fails, the loss of signal from the stretchable electronic device 1 is abrupt rather than gradually decreasing. This is advantageous so that a user may be able to readily realise with increased certainty and/or obviousness when a stretchable electronic device 1 has failed. Such performance shall be discussed below in more detail.

[0218] Additionally, the component 1a provides for the monolithic integration of electronic components 5 and data-transmission elements with a stretchable electronic device 1, which enables improves reliability, miniaturisation and simplification of a stretchable electronic device 1. Furthermore, the integration of such electronic components 5 with the stretchable silicone substrate 4 may provide for decreased size, decreased weight and improved mass production of a component 1a for a stretchable electronic device 1. Such a component 1a can also provide for a comfortable and imperceptible wearable sensor, user-friendly remote tracking, and personal healthcare control.

[0219] The present inventors have compared the mechanical properties and electrical performance of the component 1a with prior art devices using AgEpoxy adhesive, as shall be described below with reference to FIGS. 5A to 7C.

[0220] FIG. 5A shows the dependence of break stress and strain of the component 1a (labelled “Cu-nPSi” in FIGS. 5A-C) compared with a prior art component, for varying carbon black concentrations. The prior art component comprises silver-based conductive epoxy (AgEpoxy, labelled “AgEpoxy” in FIGS. 5A-C) contacts on CB-PDMS. The data shown in FIGS. 5A-C thus compares the performance of Cu-nPSi contacts on CB-PDMS (as in the component 1a) with the performance of AgEpoxy contacts on CB-PDMS. Samples having concentrations of between 5 and 20% of carbon black in CB-PDMS were made and tested. FIG. 2A shows that with increasing concentration of carbon black in CB-PDMS, higher stress is required to separate adhesive entities as the modulus of the bulk material increases. At the same time, as the carbon black content increases along with the conductivity of the CB-PDMS, particles agglomerate on the surface of the composite which could reduce the adhesive interaction of carbon black with PDMS in CB-PDMS. However, this effect is not observed in the range of 5-20% carbon black. The granular nature of AgEpoxy can be a source of non-uniform coverage of epoxy on the adhesion interface with CB-PDMS, and air pockets which could serve as areas of high stress could lead to crack formation in multiple sites, thus causing lower overall breaking stress for samples at all concentrations of carbon black, as well as progressive cracking and loss of electrical signal at higher stress levels. The comparatively poor performance of AgEpoxy contacts on CB-PDMS compared with the improved performance of Cu-nPSi contacts on CB-PDMS is shown in clearly shown in FIG. 5A.

[0221] To investigate the electromechanical behaviour of the samples described above in relation to FIG. 5A, strain and maximum stress tests were performed on samples stretched by copper wires attached to the contacts. The results are shown in FIG. 5B. FIG. 5B shows the mode of failure for devices made using Cu-nPSi contacts on CB-PDMS (as in the component 1a) and AgEpoxy contacts on CB-PDMS. Imperfections and crack prone voids caused the breaking of several AgEpoxy samples in a stepwise fashion starting at 0.20 MPa and 20% strain. The Cu-nPSi contacts were found to fail catastrophically at 35% strain on average and at 0.42 MPa. The failure shown in the Cu-nPSi is more desirable. This is because as shown in FIG. 5C, the gradual failure mode of failure of the AgEpoxy contacts creates large discrepancies in the electrical signal measured as resistance change with strain of the CB-PDMS composite, producing large errors in the typical exponential signal. The catastrophic failure of the CU-nPsi is more desirable because it provides that a component 1a may fail abruptly rather than gradually. A loss in signal may therefore be sudden, so that a user of the component 1a may advantageously be able to readily realise with increased certainty and/or obviousness when the component 1a has failed.

[0222] FIG. 6A shows a comparison of the resistance after 20 cycles of strain and release at different strain levels for Cu-nPSi contacts on CB-PDMS (as in the component 1a) with the performance of AgEpoxy contacts on CB-PDMS (similar samples to those described above in relation to FIG. 5 were used). The cyclic deformation of the contacts was studied by measuring the resistance and mechanical properties at a constant strain and with an increase of 5% elongation every 20 cycles at 2.5 mm/s. FIG. 6A shows the resistance measured at the end of each stage. Lower maximum strains were observed for both contacts, with the AgEpoxy contacts breaking at around 20% strain (σ=0.20 MPa) and the Cu-nPSi contacts breaking at around 30% strain (σ=0.38 MPa). The exponential shape of the response can be attributed to a well characterised hysteresis effect coming from the PDMS matrix at higher strains, whereas a more rapid restoration of conductivity occurs at strains below 15%. The large increase in the case of the AgEpoxy contacts can also be due to the brittleness of the contacts as cracks would cause large area disconnections at large values of strain.

[0223] Sensor performance also depends on the failure of the component bond at a certain strain level and after cyclic strain. A gradual break rather than a sudden break would result in loss of electrical signal and therefore loss of functionality of the component. The conductive properties of the AgEpoxy contacts on CB-PDMS were found to diminish with increasing strains much faster than the conductive properties of the Cu-nPSi contacts on CB-PDMS. As illustrated in FIG. 6B, the adhesive interaction between AgEpoxy and CB-PDMS was shown to be weaker and crack at strains of 15% reaching strains of up to 20%, whereas the Cu-nPSi contacts were shown to be reliable after 100 incremental cycles up to 25% strain and to be able to withstand strains of up to 35%.

[0224] FIGS. 5B, 5C, 6A and 6B illustrate that AgEpoxy contacts gradually fail, resulting in a gradual decrease in signal for a component, whereas desirably, Cu-nPSi contacts fail with an abrupt loss of signal and fail at a higher strain level.

[0225] To study the effect of the Schottky diode formed at the interface of the component 1a, two types of Cu-nPSi contacts on CB-PDMS with different conduction mechanisms, namely p-type and n-type semiconductors, were tested. FIG. 7A shows current-voltage curves for components 1a having p-type and n-type silicon. FIG. 7A shows that for p-type silicon, currents of lower magnitude can be obtained with positive applied voltages compared with n-type silicon. This is observed in the non-linear regime of the current-voltage (I-V) curves, applying a voltage from −1.0V to +1.0V. An applied voltage with magnitude higher than 1.0V is therefore required for strain-sensing with the component 1a. The component 1a contact structure leads to Schottky junctions at both silicon heterointerfaces, for both p-type and n-type silicon. Fermi level pinning causes bending in the silicon conduction and valence bands. This is shown in FIG. 7B, and restricts the conductance at low energies.

[0226] The resistance of p-type silicon is known to be lower than that of n-type silicon, with resistance values of 175.5 kΩ and 68.3 kΩ, respectively. The greatest obtained component 1a contact conductance was (1.63±0.04)×10-5Ω-1, for p-type silicon applying a negative voltage. Asymmetry in the p-type curve is explained by the Schottky barrier height at the Cu—Si interface. The largest Schottky barrier height ϕB is the Si—Cu interface (assuming a Cu work function of −4.65 eV 45), which must be overcome for hole transport. The p-type contacts are therefore more conductive in the direction shown in FIG. 7B, i.e. with hole (h+) transport from Si to Cu, because this avoids the largest potential barrier from the Cu Fermi level (Ef) over the Schottky barrier ϕB to the Si valence band (Ev). Band bending for both n-type device architectures is also shown in FIG. 7B, where electron transport occurs in the silicon conduction band (Ec). Using silicon with higher doping levels would increase the charge carrier density and thereby reduce the width of the band bending. Using thin silicon layers (<100 μm) as contacts would effectively reduce the Schottky barrier height for charge transport from silicon into the metallic conductors, as each metal-Si Schottky barrier would sit within the band bending regime of the other. An equivalent circuit diagram is presented in FIG. 7C representing the circuit where the CB-PDMS piezoresistive element is connected via the solder-Cu-nPSi contacts to a power source to produce the I-V curves.

[0227] As shown in FIGS. 8A-C, the component 1a and the stretchable electronic device 1 may be part of a device 8 for measuring chest expansion and deformation rate. The device 8 comprises the stretchable electronic device 1 and a silicone chest strap 9. At least a portion of the silicone chest strap 9 is attached to or integrally formed with at least a portion of the stretchable silicone substrate 4. In the example shown in FIG. 8A, the second surface 4b of the stretchable silicone substrate 4 is printed on the silicone chest strap 9 such that it is integrally formed with the silicone chest strap 9. The silicone chest strap 9 comprises a strip of silicone having a first end and a second end joined together to form a closed loop, as shown in FIG. 8A, and is made from polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). As shown in FIG. 8B, the silicone chest strap 9 is sized to be worn as a harness around the chest of a user 10. The width and/or looped length of the silicone chest strap 9 may be sized depending on, for example, one or more of the age, gender, and weight of the user 10.

[0228] When a user 10 wearing the device 8 inhales, the silicone chest strap 9 and the stretchable silicone substrate 4 are configured to stretch to a stretched position 10b, as shown in FIG. 8C. When a user 10 wearing the device 8 exhales, the silicone chest strap 9 and the stretchable silicone substrate 4 are configured to contract or return to a relaxed/released position 10a, as shown in FIG. 8C.

[0229] FIG. 8C shows the resistance change corresponding to the chest expansion of a user 10 at rest. Each of the peaks shown in FIG. 8C corresponds to an inhalation and exhalation cycle. This makes it easy to determine breathing frequency by tracking the resistance change while a user 10 is wearing the device 8. Using the device 8, it is possible to remotely collect date from active subjects during daily exercise and construct health and progress graphs, with an additional wireless antenna. Accordingly, the device 8 can be used for exercise tracking, high impact sports tracking, diagnostics through breathing for patients with apnea, and rehabilitation for stroke patients.

[0230] As shown in FIGS. 9A-F, the stretchable electronic device 1 may be part of a device 11 for rehabilitation. The device 11 comprises the stretchable electronic device 1 and a silicone ball 12. The stretchable electronic device 1 is fully embedded in the silicone ball 12, as shown in the cross-sectional view of FIG. 9C.

[0231] When a user 13 squeezes the device 11, the silicone ball 12 and the stretchable electronic device 1 are configured to be compressed. When the user 13 reduces the amount of squeezing force on the device 11, or stops squeezing the device 11 altogether, the silicone ball 12 and the stretchable electronic device 1 are configured to expand or return to a relaxed/released position. This is shown sequentially in FIGS. 9D-F. In FIG. 9D the user 13 holds the device 11. In FIG. 9E the user 13 softly grips the device 11. In FIG. 9F the user 13 tightly grips the device 11. FIGS. 9G and 9H show the resistance change corresponding to various squeezing rates and pressure strengths of a user 13 squeezing the device 11. The magnitude of each of the peaks in FIGS. 9G and 9H corresponds with how tightly the device 11 is squeezed/gripped by the user 13. FIG. 9I shows pressure change corresponding to various squeezes of the device 11 by a user 13. Each of the peaks in FIG. 9I corresponds with how tightly the device 11 is squeezed/gripper by the user 13.

[0232] Advantageously, the device 11 may provide for the measurement of changes in resistance to reflect changes in pressure and the amount of pressure applied to the device 11 by a user 13. For example, variations of squeeze-force with time could be used to monitor the rehabilitation of patients with hand injuries.

[0233] As shown in FIG. 10, the stretchable electronic device 1 may be part of a device 14 for rehabilitation. The device 14 comprises a silicone strap 15, and the stretchable electronic device 1 is attached to or integrally formed with the silicone strap 15. The silicone strap 15 has a first portion 15a and a second portion 15b and is made from polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). Though, it is envisaged that any other silicone material may be used).

[0234] The first portion 15a of the silicone strap 15 comprises a loop for receiving part of a limb. In the example shown in FIG. 10, the first portion 15a of the silicone strap 15 is configured to receive a first foot 18 of a user 17. Though, it is envisaged that the first portion 15a of the silicone strap 15 may be configured to receive another body part, such as an ankle, leg, hand, wrist or arm. The second portion 15b of the silicone strap 15 is straight and the stretchable electronic device 1 is attached to or integrally formed with the second portion 15b of the silicone strap 15, as shown in FIG. 10.

[0235] The silicone strap 15 is configured to stretch when a tensile force 20 is applied thereto, and the silicone strap 15 is configured to contract or return to a relaxed/released state/position when the tensile force 20 is removed and/or decreased in magnitude. For example, to use the device 14, a user 17 may place a first foot 18 through the first portion 15a of the silicone strap 15b and may stand on an end 16 of the second portion 15b of the silicone strap 15 with their second foot 19. They may then cyclically apply a tensile force 20 to the silicone strap 15 by repeatedly moving their first foot 18 first away from and then back towards their second foot 19, as shown in FIG. 10, where the user 17 is shown moving their first foot 18 away from their second foot 19. FIG. 10 also shows data of extension against time for a user 17 using the device 14. The peaks correspond to maximum values of the tensile force 20. Such data may be useful in patient rehabilitation.

[0236] The advantageous properties and performance of exemplary such components and stretchable electronic devices as described herein shall now be discussed further, with reference to the experimental data shown in FIG. 11A through to FIG. 19.

[0237] FIG. 11A shows an electron micrograph of an exemplary copper-p-type-silicon interface with a silver deposition time of 2 minutes. The numbers indicate the location of each spectra acquired by energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis. Each measurement was taken 1 μm apart.

[0238] FIG. 11B shows an electron micrograph of an exemplary unetched copper-silicon interface. The numbers indicate the location of each spectra acquired by EDX analysis. Each measurement was taken 1 μm apart.

[0239] FIG. 11C shows EDX spectra for copper and silicon taken from the cross-section of the exemplary electroplated p-type-silicon shown in FIG. 11A.

[0240] FIG. 11D shows EDX spectra for copper and silicon from the cross-section of exemplary electroplated unetched silicon shown in FIG. 11B. Intensity values for copper and silicon were calculated using the peaks at 0.79 keV for copper and at 1.74 keV for silicon.

[0241] Views 1, 2 and 3 in FIG. 12A show electron micrographs of the surface of exemplary silicon wafers after depositing a silver catalyst (deposition times of 2 minutes, 4 minutes and 8 minutes for views 1, 2 and 3 respectively) with increasing particle size.

[0242] Views 4, 5 and 6 in FIG. 12A show electron micrographs of the surface of p-type-silicon with increasing silver catalyst size after etching which produced an exemplary silicon surface with larger pores.

[0243] Views 7, 8 and 9 of FIG. 12A show electron micrographs of p-type-silicon with varying pore sizes after copper electroplating showing the interface of copper and p-type-silicon. The copper layer was not deposited with an even thickness throughout the cross-section of the p-type-silicon, likely due to the limitation in mass transfer during electroplating.

[0244] FIG. 12B shows maximum stress values for exemplary copper-p-type-silicon samples pulled to failure after a 4 mm thick multicore copper wire was soldered on the electroplated surface of p-type-silicon samples of varying pore sizes and flat, unetched silicon. The “*” in FIG. 12B represents that the maximum stress=n/a—unable to perform test, as the copper film delaminated during soldering and handling.

[0245] Views 1 (top) and 2 (bottom) in FIG. 12C show representative photographs of the samples tested in FIG. 12B showing the wafer before soldering the 4 mm multicore copper wire (view 1) and the wafer breaking before the soldered connection (view 1), and showing the unetched silicon wafer just after copper electroplating (view 2) and showing the copper film detaching from the surface of unetched silicon during soldering (view 2).

[0246] FIG. 13 shows the dependence of maximum strain at failure of copper-p-type-silicon and silver-epoxy contacts in relation to carbon-black filler concentrations (n=5) in an exemplary CB-PDMS layer.

[0247] FIG. 14 shows scanning electron microscope (SEM) micrographs for 12% CB-PDMS surface before and after stretching to 20% strain at 1000× and 5000× magnification.

[0248] FIG. 15 shows the results from maximum stress experiments using 3 mm pristine PDMS and plasma-treated PDMS (unmasked) dog-bone samples, and samples with copper-p-type-silicon contacts prepared on PDMS substrates with 3, 6 and 9 mm thickness. No difference was observed in the values of maximum stress to failure for each thickness indicating that the fracture mechanism is a surface phenomenon only.

[0249] FIG. 16A shows strain values for exemplary copper-p-type-silicon contact samples during cyclic stretching with increasing strain levels until failure, showing samples failing on average at 30%. The data shows that some samples were able to withstand strains of up to 35% before failure of CB-PDMS.

[0250] FIG. 16B shows strain values for exemplary silver-epoxy contacts during cyclic stretching at incremental strain levels starting from 5% and increasing by 5% every 20 cycles until failure.

[0251] FIG. 17A shows representative curves for electrical hysteresis due to previous loading demonstrated on an exemplary 12% CB-PDMS layered composite. FIG. 17B shows mechanical hysteresis during cyclic stretching tests.

[0252] FIG. 18 shows a schematic view of a four-probe measurement setup to determine the change of contact resistance at different strain levels. The table in FIG. 18 shows the derivation of contact resistance contribution for strain levels of 0%, 10% and 25% (n=3).

[0253] FIG. 19 shows the resistance of an exemplary 12% CB-PDMS layered composite with copper-p-type-silicon contacts as a function of temperature, normalised to resistance at 22° C.

[0254] Various modifications may be made to the described embodiment(s) without departing from the scope of the invention as defined by the accompanying claims.