CELLULAR PRODUCTION OF SIALYLATED DI AND/OR OLIGOSACCHARIDES

Abstract

The disclosure is in the technical field of synthetic biology and metabolic engineering. More particularly, the disclosure is in the technical field of metabolically engineered cells and use of the cells in a cultivation or fermentation. The disclosure describes a metabolically engineered cell and a method by cultivation or fermentation with the cell for production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide. The metabolically engineered cell comprises a pathway for production of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide and is modified for expression and/or overexpression of multiple coding DNA sequences encoding one or more isoproteins that catalyze the same chemical reaction. Furthermore, the disclosure provides for purification of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide from the cultivation.

Claims

1-51. (canceled)

52. A cell that is metabolically engineered for production of a sialylated disaccharide and/or sialylated oligosaccharide, the cell comprising a pathway for production of the sialylated disaccharide and/or sialylated oligosaccharide, wherein the cell is modified for expression and/or overexpression of multiple coding DNA sequences encoding one or more proteins that catalyze a same chemical reaction.

53. The cell of claim 52, wherein at least one of the proteins is involved in the pathway for production of the sialylated disaccharide and/or sialylated oligosaccharide.

54. The cell of claim 52, wherein the pathway for production of sialylated disaccharide and/or sialylated oligosaccharide comprises a sialylation pathway comprising at least one protein selected from the group consisting of N-acylglucosamine 2-epimerase, UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase, N-acetylmannosamine-6-phosphate 2-epimerase, UDP-GlcNAc 2-epimerase/kinase hydrolyzing, N-aceylneuraminate-9-phosphate synthetase, phosphatase, N-acetylneuraminate synthase, N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase, sialyltransferase, and sialic acid transporter.

55. The cell of claim 52, wherein the multiple coding DNA sequences comprise one or more of multiple copies of the same coding DNA sequence encoding one protein, multiple coding DNA sequences encoding one protein, and multiple coding DNA sequences encoding multiple isoproteins that catalyze a same chemical reaction.

56. The cell of claim 52, wherein multiple is at least two (2).

57. The cell of claim 52, wherein the coding DNA sequences are presented to the cell in one or more gene expression modules wherein expression is regulated by one or more regulatory sequences; the coding DNA sequences are presented to the cell in one or more gene expression modules wherein the expression modules are integrated in the cell's genome; or the coding DNA sequences are presented to the cell in one or more gene expression modules wherein the expression modules are presented on a vector comprising a plasmid, cosmid, phage, liposome, or virus, which is to be stably transformed in the cell.

58. The cell of claim 52, wherein at least one of the proteins is involved in the synthesis of a nucleotide-activated sugar, wherein the nucleotide-activated sugar is to be used in the production of the sialylated disaccharide and/or sialylated oligosaccharide, and the nucleotide-activated sugar is selected from the group consisting of UDP-N-acetylglucosamine (UDP-GlcNAc), UDP-N-acetylgalactosamine (UDP-GalNAc), UDP-N-acetylmannosamine (UDP-ManNAc), UDP-glucose (UDP-Glc), UDP-galactose (UDP-Gal), GDP-mannose (GDP-Man), UDP-glucuronate, UDP-galacturonate, UDP-2-acetamido-2,6-dideoxy--L-arabino-4-hexulose, UDP-2-acetamido-2,6-dideoxy--L-lyxo-4-hexulose, UDP-N-acetyl-L-rhamnosamine (UDP-L-RhaNAc or UDP-2-acetamido-2,6-dideoxy-L-mannose), dTDP-N-acetylfucosamine, UDP-N-acetylfucosamine (UDP-L-FucNAc or UDP-2-acetamido-2,6-dideoxy-L-galactose), UDP-N-acetyl-L-pneumosamine (UDP-L-PneNAC or UDP-2-acetamido-2,6-dideoxy-L-talose), UDP-N-acetylmuramic acid, UDP-N-acetyl-L-quinovosamine (UDP-L-QuiNAc or UDP-2-acetamido-2,6-dideoxy-L-glucose), CMP-sialic acid (CMP-Neu5Ac), CMP-Neu4Ac, CMP-Neu5Ac9N.sub.3, CMP-Neu4,5Ac.sub.2, CMP-Neu5,7Ac2, CMP-Neu5,9Ac2, CMP-Neu5,7(8,9)Ac2, CMP-N-glycolylneuraminic acid (CMP-Neu5Gc), GDP-fucose (GDP-Fuc), GDP-rhamnose, and UDP-xylose.

59. The cell of claim 58, wherein the protein involved in the synthesis of a nucleotide-activated sugar is selected from the group consisting of mannose-6-phosphate isomerase, phosphomannomutase, mannose-1-phosphate guanylyltransferase, GDP-mannose 4,6-dehydratase, GDP-L-fucose synthase, L-fucokinase/GDP-fucose pyrophosphorylase, L-glutamine-D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase, glucosamine-6-phosphate deaminase, phosphoglucosamine mutase, N-acetylglucosamine-6-phosphate deacetylase, N-acetylglucosamine epimerase, UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase, N-acetylglucosamine-6P 2-epimerase, glucosamine 6-phosphate N-acetyltransferase, N-acetylglucosamine-6-phosphate phosphatase, N-acetylmannosamine-6-phosphate phosphatase, N-acetylmannosamine kinase, N-acetylmannosamine-6-phosphate 2-epimerase, phosphoacetylglucosamine mutase, N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate uridyltransferase, glucosamine-1-phosphate acetyltransferase, sialic acid synthase, N-acetylneuraminate lyase, N-acylneuraminate-9-phosphate synthase, N-acylneuraminate-9-phosphate phosphatase, CMP-sialic acid synthetase, galactose-1-epimerase, galactokinase, glucokinase, galactose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase, UDP-glucose 4-epimerase, glucose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase, glucophosphomutase, N-acetylglucosamine 1-phosphate uridylyltransferase, UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 4-epimerase, UDP-galactose 4-epimerase, N-acetylgalactosamine kinase, UDP-GalNAc pyrophosphorylase, mannose-1-phosphate guanyltransferase, UDP-GlcNAc 2-epimerase, and ManNAc kinase.

60. The cell of claim 52, wherein the cell further expresses at least one glycosyltransferase selected from the group consisting of a fucosyltransferase, sialyltransferase, galactosyltransferase, glucosyltransferase, mannosyltransferase, N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase, N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase, N-acetylmannosaminyltransferase, xylosyltransferase, glucuronyltransferase, galacturonyltransferase, glucosaminyltransferase, N-glycolylneuraminyltransferase, rhamnosyltransferase, N-acetylrhamnosyltransferase, UDP-4-amino-4,6-dideoxy-N-acetyl-beta-L-altrosamine transaminase, UDP-N-acetylglucosamine enolpyruvyl transferase, and fucosaminyltransferase.

61. The cell of claim 52, wherein at least one of the proteins is a membrane transporter protein that is selected from the group consisting of a siderophore exporter, an ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter, a major facilitator superfamily (MFS) transporter, and a sugar efflux transporter.

62. The cell of claim 52, wherein the sialylated disaccharide and/or sialylated oligosaccharide is selected from the group consisting of a milk oligosaccharide, O-antigen, enterobacterial common antigen (ECA), oligosaccharide repeats present in capsular polysaccharides, peptidoglycan, amino-sugars, and Lewis-type antigen oligosaccharides.

63. The cell of claim 52, wherein the cell comprises a fucosylation pathway comprising at least one protein selected from the group consisting of a mannose-6-phosphate isomerase, phosphomannomutase, mannose-1-phosphate guanylyltransferase, GDP-mannose 4,6-dehydratase, GDP-L-fucose synthase, fucose permease, fucose kinase, fucose-1-phosphate guanylyltransferase, and fucosyltransferase.

64. The cell of claim 52, wherein the cell comprises a galactosylation pathway comprising at least one protein selected from the group consisting of a galactose-1-epimerase, galactokinase, glucokinase, galactose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase, UDP-glucose 4-epimerase, glucose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase, glucophosphomutase, and galactosyltransferase.

65. The cell of claim 52, wherein the cell comprises an N-acetylglucosaminylation pathway comprising at least one protein selected from the group consisting of a L-glutamine-D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase, N-acetylglucosamine-6-phosphate deacetylase, phosphoglucosamine mutase, N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase/glucosamine-1-phosphate acetyltransferase, and N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase.

66. The cell of claim 52, wherein the cell is modified for enhanced synthesis or supply of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP).

67. The cell of claim 52, wherein the cell comprises: at least one coding DNA sequence encoding a protein selected from the group consisting of i) an enzyme from Neisseria meningitidis (NmNeuB) comprising SEQ ID NO:01 and having N-acetylneuraminate synthase activity, ii) a functional homolog or functional fragment of the enzyme comprising SEQ ID NO:01, and iii) a polypeptide sequence having at least 80% sequence identity to the full-length sequence of the enzyme comprising SEQ ID NO:01 and having N-acetylneuraminate synthase activity, two or more coding DNA sequences encoding a protein selected from the group consisting of i) an enzyme from Campylobacter jejuni (CjNeuA) comprising SEQ ID NO:02, Helicobacter influenzae (HiNeuA) comprising SEQ ID NO:03, and Pasteurella multocida (PmultNeuA) comprising SEQ ID NO:04, wherein the enzymes comprising SEQ ID NOs:02, 03, and 04 have N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase activity, ii) a functional homolog or functional fragment of the enzymes comprising SEQ ID NOs:02, 03, or 04, and iii) a polypeptide sequence having at least 80% sequence identity to the full-length sequence of the enzymes comprising SEQ ID NOs:02, 03, or 04, respectively, and having N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase activity, and two or more copies of one or more coding DNA sequences of an alpha-2,3-sialyltransferase, an alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase, or an alpha-2,8-sialyltransferase.

68. The cell of claim 52, wherein the cell comprises: two or more copies of a coding DNA sequence encoding an enzyme having L-glutamine-D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase activity and being selected from the group consisting of i) an enzyme from Escherichia coli (glmS*54) comprising SEQ ID NO:05, ii) a functional homolog or functional fragment of the enzyme comprising SEQ ID NO:05, and iii) a polypeptide sequence having at least 80% sequence identity to the full-length sequence of the enzyme comprising SEQ ID NO:05 and having L-glutamine-D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase activity, or two or more copies of a coding DNA sequence encoding an enzyme having glucosamine 6-phosphate N-acetyltransferase activity and being selected from the group consisting of i) an enzyme from Saccharomyces cerevisiae (GNA1) comprising SEQ ID NO:06, ii) a functional homolog or functional fragment of the enzyme comprising SEQ ID NO:06, and iii) a polypeptide sequence having at least 80% sequence identity to the full-length sequence of the enzyme comprising SEQ ID NO:06 and having glucosamine 6-phosphate N-acetyltransferase activity.

69. The cell of claim 52, wherein the cell comprises a modification for reduced production of acetate.

70. The cell of claim 52, wherein the cell further comprises a lower or reduced expression, or abolished, impaired, reduced or delayed activity of one or more of the proteins comprising beta-galactosidase, galactoside 0-acetyltransferase, N-acetylglucosamine-6-phosphate deacetylase, glucosamine-6-phosphate deaminase, N-acetylglucosamine repressor, ribonucleotide monophosphatase, EIICBA-Nag, UDP-glucose:undecaprenyl-phosphate glucose-1-phosphate transferase, L-fuculokinase, L-fucose isomerase, N-acetylneuraminate lyase, N-acetylmannosamine kinase, N-acetylmannosamine-6-phosphate 2-epimerase, EIIAB-Man, EIIC-Man, EIID-Man, ushA, galactose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase, glucose-1-phosphate adenylyltransferase, glucose-1-phosphatase, ATP-dependent 6-phosphofructokinase isozyme 1, ATP-dependent 6-phosphofructokinase isozyme 2, glucose-6-phosphate isomerase, aerobic respiration control protein, transcriptional repressor IclR, lon protease, glucose-specific translocating phosphotransferase enzyme IIBC component ptsG, glucose-specific translocating phosphotransferase (PTS) enzyme IIBC component malX, enzyme IIA.sup.Glc, beta-glucoside specific PTS enzyme II, fructose-specific PTS multiphosphoryl transfer protein FruA and FruB, ethanol dehydrogenase aldehyde dehydrogenase, pyruvate-formate lyase, acetate kinase, phosphoacyltransferase, phosphate acetyltransferase, or pyruvate decarboxylase.

71. The cell of claim 52, wherein the cell comprises a catabolic pathway for selected monosaccharides, disaccharides or oligosaccharides which is at least partially inactivated, the monosaccharides, disaccharides, or oligosaccharides being involved in or required for the synthesis of the sialylated disaccharide and/or sialylated oligosaccharide.

72. The cell of claim 52, wherein the cell uses a precursor for synthesizing the sialylated disaccharide and/or sialylated oligosaccharide, the precursor being fed to the cell from a cultivation medium or produced by the cell.

73. The cell of claim 52, wherein the cell produces a precursor for synthesizing the sialylated disaccharide and/or sialylated oligosaccharide.

74. The cell of claim 52, wherein the cell produces 90 g/L or more of the sialylated disaccharide or sialylated oligosaccharide in whole broth or supernatant, wherein the sialylated disaccharide or sialylated oligosaccharide in the whole broth or supernatant has a purity of at least 80% measured on the total amount of sialylated disaccharide or sialylated oligosaccharide and its precursor produced by the cell in the whole broth or supernatant, respectively.

75. The cell of claim 52, wherein the cell is a bacterium, a fungus, a yeast, a plant cell, an animal cell, or a protozoan cell.

76. The cell of claim 75, wherein the cell is a viable Gram-negative bacterium that comprises a reduced or abolished synthesis of poly-N-acetyl-glucosamine (PNAG), enterobacterial common antigen (ECA), cellulose, colanic acid, core oligosaccharides, osmoregulated periplasmic glucans (OPG), glucosylglycerol, glycan, or trehalose compared to a non-modified progenitor.

77. The cell of claim 52, wherein the cell is capable of synthesizing a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising at least one sialylated oligosaccharide.

78. The cell of claim 52, wherein the cell is capable of synthesizing a mixture of disaccharides and oligosaccharides comprising at least one sialylated disaccharide or at least one sialylated oligosaccharide.

79. A method for producing a sialylated disaccharide and/or sialylated oligosaccharide by a cell, the method comprising: i) cultivating the cell of claim 52 in a culture medium under conditions permissive to produce the sialylated disaccharide and/or sialylated oligosaccharide, and ii) optionally separating the sialylated disaccharide and/or sialylated oligosaccharide from the cultivation.

80. The method according to claim 79, wherein the culture medium comprises a carbon source comprising a monosaccharide, disaccharide, oligosaccharide, polysaccharide, polyol, glycerol, a complex medium including molasses, corn steep liquor, peptone, tryptone or yeast extract.

81. The method according to claim 79, wherein the cell uses at least one precursor for synthesizing the sialylated disaccharide and/or sialylated oligosaccharide.

82. The method according to claim 79, wherein the culture medium contains at least one compound selected from the group consisting of lactose, galactose, sialic acid, fucose, GlcNAc, GalNAc, lacto-N-biose (LNB), and N-acetyllactosamine (LacNAc).

83. The method according to claim 79, wherein a first phase of exponential cell growth is provided by adding a carbon-based substrate to the culture medium before lactose is added to the culture medium in a second phase.

84. The method according to claim 79 wherein the cell produces at least one precursor for synthesizing the sialylated disaccharide and/or sialylated oligosaccharide.

85. The method according to claim 81, wherein the precursor for synthesizing the sialylated disaccharide and/or sialylated oligosaccharide is completely converted into the synthesizing the sialylated disaccharide and/or sialylated oligosaccharide.

86. The method according to claim 79, wherein the sialylated disaccharide or sialylated oligosaccharide is separated from the culture medium or the cell, wherein the separation comprises at least one of the following steps: clarification, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, two-phase partitioning, reverse osmosis, microfiltration, activated charcoal or carbon treatment, treatment with non-ionic surfactants, enzymatic digestion, tangential flow high-performance filtration, tangential flow ultrafiltration, electrophoresis, affinity chromatography, ion exchange chromatography, hydrophobic interaction chromatography, gel filtration, or ligand exchange chromatography.

87. The method according to claim 79, wherein the method further comprises purifying the sialylated disaccharide and/or sialylated oligosaccharide, optionally the purification comprises at least one of the following steps: use of activated charcoal or carbon, use of charcoal, nanofiltration, ultrafiltration, electrophoresis, enzymatic treatment or ion exchange, use of alcohols, use of aqueous alcohol mixtures, crystallization, evaporation, precipitation, drying, spray drying, lyophilization, spray freeze drying, freeze spray drying, band drying, belt drying, vacuum band drying, vacuum belt drying, drum drying, roller drying, vacuum drum drying, or vacuum roller drying.

88. A method of producing a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising at least one sialylated oligosaccharide by a cell, the method comprising the steps of: i) cultivating a cell of claim 77 in culture medium under conditions permissive to produce the mixture of oligosaccharides, and ii) separating the mixture of oligosaccharides from the cultivation.

89. A method of producing a mixture of disaccharides and oligosaccharides comprising at least one sialylated disaccharide or at least one sialylated oligosaccharide by a cell, the method comprising the steps of: i) cultivating the cell of claim 78 in culture medium under conditions permissive to produce the mixture of disaccharides and oligosaccharides, and ii) optionally separating the mixture of disaccharides and oligosaccharides from the cultivation.

Description

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0163] According to a first embodiment, the disclosure provides a metabolically engineered cell for the production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide. Herein, a metabolically engineered cell comprising a pathway for the production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide is provided, which is modified for expression and/or overexpression of multiple coding DNA sequences encoding one or more proteins that catalyse the same chemical reaction.

[0164] According to a second embodiment, the disclosure provides a method for the production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide by a metabolically engineered cell. The method comprises the steps of: [0165] 1) providing a cell as described herein, and [0166] 2) cultivating the cell under conditions permissive to produce the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide.

[0167] Preferably, the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide is separated from the cultivation as explained herein.

[0168] In the scope of the disclosure, permissive conditions are understood to be conditions relating to physical or chemical parameters including but not limited to temperature, pH, pressure, osmotic pressure and product/precursor/acceptor concentration.

[0169] In a particular embodiment, the permissive conditions may include a temperature-range of 30+/−20 degrees centigrade, a pH-range of 7+/−3.

[0170] According to one aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the one or more proteins that are encoded in the cell by expression and/or overexpression of multiple coding DNA sequences and that catalyze the same chemical reaction are isoproteins. Isoproteins are alternative forms of the same protein activity that can differ in any one or more of amino acid composition, sequence, three-dimensional structure, multimeric quaternary structure, protein stability, regulatory properties and kinetic parameters comprising K.sub.M, k.sub.cat, catalytic efficiency, enzymatic rate and velocity. Isoproteins may have different catalytic efficiencies to catalyse the same chemical reaction.

[0171] According to an alternative aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the one or more proteins that are encoded in the cell by expression and/or overexpression of multiple coding DNA sequences and that catalyze the same chemical reaction are proteins that are involved in the synthesis of a nucleotide-activated sugar to be used in the production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide.

[0172] According to an alternative aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the one or more proteins that are encoded in the cell by expression and/or overexpression of multiple coding DNA sequences and that catalyze the same chemical reaction are membrane transporter proteins. According to a preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the one or more membrane transporter proteins is/are chosen from the list comprising a siderophore exporter, an ABC transporter, an MFS transporter and Sugar Efflux Transporter as defined herein.

[0173] The disclosure provides different types of cells for the production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide with a metabolically engineered cell.

[0174] In a preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell expresses one protein that is expressed by multiple coding DNA sequences. In an alternative and/or additional preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell expresses two isoproteins that are expressed by multiple coding DNA sequences. In an alternative and/or additional preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell expresses three or more isoproteins that are expressed by multiple coding DNA sequences.

[0175] In a preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell of disclosure, the cell is metabolically engineered to comprise a pathway for the production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide as defined herein. In an alternative preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell of disclosure, the cell is metabolically engineered to comprise a pathway for the production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide and to express and/or overexpress any one or more isoproteins that catalyze the same chemical reaction.

[0176] According to a preferred aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the protein and/or two or more isoproteins that is/are encoded by expression and/or overexpression of multiple coding DNA sequences in the cell is/are involved in the pathway for the production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide.

[0177] In a further preferred aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the pathway for the production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide comprises a sialylation pathway as defined herein.

[0178] According to a preferred aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises a pathway for production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide wherein the pathway comprises at least one protein chosen from the list comprising N-acylglucosamine 2-epimerase, UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase, N-acetylmannosamine-6-phosphate 2-epimerase, UDP-GlcNAc 2-epimerase/kinase hydrolyzing, N-aceylneuraminate-9-phosphate synthetase, phosphatase, N-acetylneuraminate synthase, N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase, sialyltransferase and sialic acid transporter.

[0179] According to a more preferred aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell expresses at least one protein chosen from the list comprising N-acylglucosamine 2-epimerase, UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase, N-acetylmannosamine-6-phosphate 2-epimerase, UDP-GlcNAc 2-epimerase/kinase hydrolyzing, N-aceylneuraminate-9-phosphate synthetase, phosphatase, N-acetylneuraminate synthase, N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase, sialyltransferase and sialic acid transporter wherein the at least one protein is encoded by the multiple coding DNA sequences.

[0180] According to another more preferred aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, any one of the N-acylglucosamine 2-epimerase, UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase, N-acetylmannosamine-6-phosphate 2-epimerase, UDP-GlcNAc 2-epimerase/kinase hydrolyzing, N-aceylneuraminate-9-phosphate synthetase, phosphatase, N-acetylneuraminate synthase, N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase, sialyltransferase and sialic acid transporter is an endogenous protein of the cell with a modified expression or activity, preferably any one of the endogenous N-acylglucosamine 2-epimerase, UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase, N-acetylmannosamine-6-phosphate 2-epimerase, UDP-GlcNAc 2-epimerase/kinase hydrolyzing, N-aceylneuraminate-9-phosphate synthetase, phosphatase, N-acetylneuraminate synthase, N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase, sialyltransferase and sialic acid transporter is overexpressed; alternatively any one of the N-acylglucosamine 2-epimerase, UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase, N-acetylmannosamine-6-phosphate 2-epimerase, UDP-GlcNAc 2-epimerase/kinase hydrolyzing, N-aceylneuraminate-9-phosphate synthetase, phosphatase, N-acetylneuraminate synthase, N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase, sialyltransferase and sialic acid transporter is an heterologous protein that is heterogeneously introduced and expressed in the cell, preferably overexpressed. Any one of the endogenous N-acylglucosamine 2-epimerase, UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase, N-acetylmannosamine-6-phosphate 2-epimerase, UDP-GlcNAc 2-epimerase/kinase hydrolyzing, N-aceylneuraminate-9-phosphate synthetase, phosphatase, N-acetylneuraminate synthase, N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase, sialyltransferase and sialic acid transporter can have a modified expression in the cell, which also expresses any one of a heterologous N-acylglucosamine 2-epimerase, UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase, N-acetylmannosamine-6-phosphate 2-epimerase, UDP-GlcNAc 2-epimerase/kinase hydrolyzing, N-aceylneuraminate-9-phosphate synthetase, phosphatase, N-acetylneuraminate synthase, N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase, sialyltransferase and sialic acid transporter.

[0181] In a preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell, the cell comprises a pathway for production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide wherein the cell expresses a sialic acid transporter that is e.g., a porter or a P-P-bond-hydrolysis-driven transporter as defined by the Transporter Classification Database that is operated and curated by the Saier Lab Bioinformatics Group available via www.tcdb.org., like e.g., nanT from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:08. Sialic acid can be added to the cell or can be provided by an enzyme expressed in the cell or by the mechanism of the cell as described herein.

[0182] In another and/or additional preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell, the cell comprises a pathway for production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide wherein the cell expresses a sialyltransferase chosen from the list comprising alpha-2,3-sialyltransferase, alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase, and alpha-2,8-sialyltransferase, which transfers sialic acid from CMP-sialic acid to one or more glycan acceptor(s) to produce a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide. In another and/or additional preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell, the cell expresses more than one sialyltransferase that synthesize any one or more sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharides as defined herein. CMP-sialic acid can be added to the cell and/or can be provided by an enzyme expressed in the cell or by the mechanism of the cell. Such cell producing CMP-sialic acid is described herein. Preferably, the cell is modified to produce CMP-sialic acid as described herein. More preferably, the cell is modified for enhanced production of CMP-sialic acid as described herein.

[0183] In an alternative and/or additional preferred embodiment, the cell comprises a pathway for production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide wherein the cell expresses an N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase like is known e.g., from N. meningitidis, Homo sapiens, R. norvegicus, Streptomyces sp., C. jejuni, which converts sialic acid into CMP-sialic acid, and a sialyltransferase including an alpha-2,3-sialyltransferase, an alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase and/or an alpha-2,8-sialyltransferase. Sialic acid can be added to the cell and/or can be provided by an enzyme expressed in the cell or by the mechanism of the cell. Such cell producing sialic acid can express an N-acetylneuraminate synthase like is known e.g., from several species including N. meningitidis and C. jejuni. Preferably, the cell is modified to produce sialic acid. More preferably, the cell is modified for enhanced production of sialic acid. The modification can be any one or more chosen from the group comprising knockout of an N-acetylneuraminate lyase, over-expression of an N-acetylneuraminate synthase and over-expression of an N-acetylneuraminate transporter.

[0184] In an alternative and/or additional preferred embodiment, the cell comprises a pathway for production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide wherein the cell expresses an N-acetylneuraminate synthase like is known e,g. from N. meningitidis, Streptomyces sp., C. jejuni, which converts N-acetylmannosamine (ManNAc) into N-acetylneuraminate, an N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase and a sialyltransferase as is described herein. ManNAc can be added to the cell and/or can be provided by an enzyme expressed in the cell or by the mechanism of the cell. Such cell producing ManNAc can express an UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase as described herein. Preferably, the cell is modified to produce ManNAc. More preferably, the cell is modified for enhanced production of ManNAc. The modification can be e.g., expression of an UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase.

[0185] In an alternative and/or additional preferred embodiment, the cell comprises a pathway for production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide wherein the cell expresses a phosphatase like e.g., the E. coli HAD-like phosphatase genes comprising aphA, Cof, HisB, OtsB, SurE, Yaed, YcjU, YedP, YfbT, YidA, YigB, YihX, YniC, YqaB, YrbL, AppA, Gph, SerB, YbhA, YbiV, YbjL, Yfb, YieH, YjgL, YjjG, YrfG and YbiU, PsMupP from Pseudomonas putida, ScDOG1 from S. cerevisiae and BsAraL from Bacillus subtilis as described in WO 2018122225, which converts N-acetylglucosamine-6-phosphate (GlcNAc-6P) into N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc), and/or a phosphatase like e.g., an N-acylneuraminate-9-phosphatase from Candidatus Magnetomorum sp. HK-1 or Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, which converts N-acylneuraminate-9-phosphate into sialic acid combined with e.g., expression of an N-acylglucosamine 2-epimerase, an N-acetylneuraminate synthase, an N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase and a sialyltransferase as is described herein.

[0186] In an alternative and/or additional preferred embodiment, the cell comprises a pathway for production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide wherein the cell expresses an UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase like is known, e.g., from several species including C. jejuni, E. coli, N. meningitidis, Bacillus subtilis, Citrobacter rodentium, which converts UDP-N-acetylglucosamine (UDP-GlcNAc) into ManNAc, an N-acetylneuraminate synthase, and a sialyltransferase wherein the enzymes are as defined herein. UDP-GlcNAc can be added to the cell and/or can be provided by an enzyme expressed in the cell or by the metabolism of the cell. Such cell producing an UDP-GlcNAc is described herein. Preferably, the cell is modified to produce UDP-GlcNAc. More preferably, the cell is modified for enhanced UDP-GlcNAc production as described herein.

[0187] In an alternative and/or additional preferred embodiment, the cell comprises a pathway for production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide wherein the cell expresses an N-aceylneuraminate-9-phosphate synthetase, like is known e.g., from several species including Homo sapiens, Mus musculus, Rattus norvegicus, which converts N-acetylmannosamine-6-phosphate (ManNAc-6-P) into N-acetylneuraminate-9-phosphate, a phosphatase, an N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase and a sialyltransferase as described herein. ManNAc-6-P can be added to the cell and/or can be provided by an enzyme expressed in the cell or by the metabolism of the cell. Such cell producing ManNAc-6-P can e.g., express a bifunctional UDP-GlcNAc 2-epimerase/kinase as described herein. Preferably, the cell is modified to produce ManNAc-6-P. More preferably, the cell is modified for enhanced ManNAc-6-P production.

[0188] In an alternative and/or additional preferred embodiment, the cell comprises a pathway for production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide wherein the cell expresses a bifunctional UDP-GlcNAc 2-epimerase/kinase like is known e.g., from several species including H. sapiens, R. norvegicus and Mus musculus, which converts UDP-GlcNAc into ManNAc-6-P an N-acylneuraminate-9-phosphate synthetase, an N-acylneuraminate-9-phosphate phosphatase, an N-acetylneuraminate synthase, an N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase, and a sialyltransferase, wherein the enzymes are as defined herein. UDP-GlcNAc can be added to the cell and/or can be provided by an enzyme expressed in the cell or by the metabolism of the cell. Such cell producing an UDP-GlcNAc is described herein. Preferably, the cell is modified to produce UDP-GlcNAc. More preferably, the cell is modified for enhanced UDP-GlcNAc production as described herein.

[0189] In an alternative and/or additional preferred embodiment, the cell comprises a pathway for production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide wherein the cell expresses an N-acetylmannosamine-6-phosphate 2-epimerase like is known e.g., from several species including E. coli, Haemophilus influenzae, Enterobacter sp., Streptomyces sp., which converts N-acetylglucosamine-6-phosphate (GlcNAc-6P) into ManNAc-6-P, an N-acylneuraminate-9-phosphate synthetase, an N-acylneuraminate-9-phosphate phosphatase, an N-acetylneuraminate an N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase and a sialyltransferase e, wherein the enzymes are as defined herein. GlcNAc-6P can be added to the cell and/or can be provided by an enzyme expressed in the cell or by the metabolism of the cell. Such cell producing GlcNAc-6P can express an enzyme converting, e.g., GlcN6P, which is to be added to the cell, to GlcNAc-6P. This enzyme may be a glucosamine 6-phosphate N-acetyltransferase from several species including Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Kluyveromyces lactis, Homo sapiens. Preferably, the cell is modified to produce GlcNAc-6P. More preferably, the cell is modified for enhanced GlcNAc-6P production. The modification can be any one or more chosen from the group comprising knockout of a glucosamine-6-phosphate deaminase, an N-acetylglucosamine-6-phosphate deacetylase and over-expression of an L-glutamine-D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase and/or a glucosamine 6-phosphate N-acetyltransferase.

[0190] In an alternative and/or additional preferred embodiment, the cell comprises a pathway for production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide wherein the cell expresses an N-acylglucosamine 2-epimerase like is known e.g., from several species including Bacteroides ovatus, E. coli, H. sapiens, R. norvegicus, which converts GlcNAc into ManNAc, an N-acetylneuraminate synthase, an N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase, and a sialyltransferase, wherein the enzymes are as defined herein. GlcNAc can be added to the cell and/or can be provided by an enzyme expressed in the cell or by the mechanism of the cell. Such cell producing GlcNAc can express a phosphatase converting GlcNAc-6-phosphate into GlcNAc, like any one or more of e.g., the E. coli HAD-like phosphatase genes comprising aphA, Cof, HisB, OtsB, SurE, Yaed, YcjU, YedP, YfbT, YidA, YigB, YihX, YniC, YqaB, YrbL, AppA, Gph, SerB, YbhA, YbiV, YbjL, Yfb, YieH, YjgL, YjjG, YrfG and YbiU, PsMupP from Pseudomonas putida, ScDOG1 from S. cerevisiae and BsAraL from Bacillus subtilis as described in WO 2018122225. Preferably, the cell is modified to produce GlcNAc. More preferably, the cell is modified for enhanced GlcNAc production. The modification can be any one or more chosen from the group comprising knockout of a glucosamine-6-phosphate deaminase, an N-acetylglucosamine-6-phosphate deacetylase and/or an N-acetyl-D-glucosamine kinase and over-expression of an L-glutamine D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase and/or a glucosamine 6-phosphate N-acetyltransferase.

[0191] Additionally, or alternatively, the host cell used herein is optionally genetically modified to import a precursor and/or an acceptor in the cell, by the introduction and/or overexpression of a membrane transporter protein that is able to import the respective precursor and/or acceptor in the cell. Such transporter is, for example, a membrane transporter protein belonging to the siderophore exporter family, the major facilitator superfamily (MFS), the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter family, the sugar efflux transporter family or the PTS system involved in the uptake of e.g., mono-, di- and/or oligosaccharides.

[0192] Additionally, or alternatively, the host cell used herein is optionally genetically modified to import lactose in the cell, by the introduction and/or overexpression of a lactose permease. The lactose permease is, for example, encoded by the lacY gene or the lac12 gene.

[0193] Additionally, or alternatively, the host cell used herein is optionally genetically modified to export a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide over the membrane. Such transporter is, for example, a membrane transporter protein belonging to the siderophore exporter family, the major facilitator superfamily (MFS), the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter family or the sugar efflux transporter family.

[0194] In a preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises multiple coding DNA sequences wherein the multiple coding DNA sequences comprise multiple copies of the same coding DNA sequence that encode for one protein.

[0195] In another and/or additional preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises multiple coding DNA sequences wherein the multiple coding DNA sequences comprise multiple different coding DNA sequence that encode for one protein.

[0196] In another and/or additional preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises multiple coding DNA sequences wherein the multiple coding DNA sequences comprise multiple different coding DNA sequence that encode for multiple isoproteins that catalyze the same chemical reaction.

[0197] According to one aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the term “multiple” is at least two. In a preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the term “multiple” is at least three. In a more preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the term “multiple” is at least five.

[0198] In an exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises two identical coding DNA sequences that encode for the same protein. In another exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises two different coding DNA sequences that encode for the same protein. In another exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises two different coding DNA sequences that encode for two isoproteins that catalyze the same chemical reaction.

[0199] In another exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises three identical coding DNA sequences that encode for the same protein. In another exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises two identical coding DNA sequences and one coding DNA sequence that is different from the other two coding DNA sequences wherein the three coding DNA sequences encode for the same protein. In another exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises two identical coding DNA sequences and one coding DNA sequence that is different from the other two coding DNA sequences wherein the three coding DNA sequences encode for two isoproteins that catalyze the same chemical reaction. In another exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises three different coding DNA sequences that encode for the same protein. In another exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises three different coding DNA sequences that encode for three isoproteins that catalyze the same chemical reaction.

[0200] In another exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises five identical coding DNA sequences that encode for the same protein. In another exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises five different coding DNA sequences that encode for the same protein. In another exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises five different coding DNA sequences that encode for two isoproteins that catalyze the same chemical reaction. In another exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises five different coding DNA sequences that encode for three isoproteins that catalyze the same chemical reaction. In another exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises five different coding DNA sequences that encode for four isoproteins that catalyze the same chemical reaction. In another exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises five different coding DNA sequences that encode for five isoproteins that catalyze the same chemical reaction.

[0201] In a preferred aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the metabolically engineered cell is modified with one or more gene expression modules comprising multiple coding DNA sequences wherein the expression from any one of the multiple coding DNA sequences is regulated by one or more regulatory sequences. In another preferred aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the expression of any one or more of the expression modules is constitutive or is tuneable.

[0202] The expression modules are also known as transcriptional units and comprise polynucleotides for expression of recombinant genes including coding DNA sequences and appropriate transcriptional and/or translational control signals that are operably linked to the coding genes. The control signals comprise promoter sequences, untranslated regions, ribosome binding sites, terminator sequences. The expression modules can contain elements for expression of one single recombinant gene but can also contain elements for expression of more recombinant genes or can be organized in an operon structure for integrated expression of two or more recombinant genes. The polynucleotides may be produced by recombinant DNA technology using techniques well-known in the art. Methods that are well known to those skilled in the art to construct expression modules include, for example, in vitro recombinant DNA techniques, synthetic techniques, and in vivo genetic recombination. See, for example, the techniques described in Sambrook et al. (2001) Molecular Cloning: a laboratory manual, 3rd Edition, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, CSH, New York or to Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, John Wiley and Sons, N.Y. (1989 and yearly updates).

[0203] According to a preferred aspect of the disclosure, the cell is modified with one or more expression modules. The expression modules can be integrated in the genome of the cell or can be presented to the cell on a vector. The vector can be present in the form of a plasmid, cosmid, phage, liposome, or virus, which is to be stably transformed/transfected into the metabolically engineered cell. Such vectors include, among others, chromosomal, episomal and virus-derived vectors, e.g., vectors derived from bacterial plasmids, from bacteriophage, from transposons, from yeast episomes, from insertion elements, from yeast chromosomal elements, from viruses, and vectors derived from combinations thereof, such as those derived from plasmid and bacteriophage genetic elements, such as cosmids and phagemids. These vectors may contain selection markers such as but not limited to antibiotic markers, auxotrophic markers, toxin-antitoxin markers, RNA sense/antisense markers. The expression system constructs may contain control regions that regulate as well as engender expression. Generally, any system or vector suitable to maintain, propagate or express polynucleotides and/or to express a polypeptide in a host may be used for expression in this regard. The appropriate DNA sequence may be inserted into the expression system by any of a variety of well-known and routine techniques, such as, for example, those set forth in Sambrook et al., see above. For recombinant production, cells can be genetically engineered to incorporate expression systems or portions thereof or polynucleotides of the disclosure. Introduction of a polynucleotide into the cell can be effected by methods described in many standard laboratory manuals, such as Davis et al., Basic Methods in Molecular Biology, (1986), and Sambrook et al., 1989, supra.

[0204] As used herein an expression module comprises polynucleotides for expression of at least one recombinant gene. The recombinant gene is involved in the expression of a polypeptide acting in the synthesis of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide; or the recombinant gene is linked to other pathways in the host cell that are not involved in the synthesis of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide. The recombinant genes encode endogenous proteins with a modified expression or activity, preferably the endogenous proteins are overexpressed; or the recombinant genes encode heterologous proteins that are heterogeneously introduced and expressed in the modified cell, preferably overexpressed. The endogenous proteins can have a modified expression in the cell, which also expresses a heterologous protein.

[0205] According to a preferred aspect of the disclosure, the expression of each of the expression modules is constitutive or tuneable as defined herein.

[0206] According to another aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the protein and/or isoproteins encoded by multiple coding DNA sequences is/are involved in the synthesis of a nucleotide-activated sugar. Herein, the nucleotide-activated sugar is to be used in the production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide. In a preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the nucleotide-activated sugar is chosen from the list comprising UDP-N-acetylglucosamine (UDP-GlcNAc), UDP-N-acetylgalactosamine (UDP-GalNAc), UDP-N-acetylmannosamine (UDP-ManNAc), UDP-glucose (UDP-Glc), UDP-galactose (UDP-Gal), GDP-mannose (GDP-Man), UDP-glucuronate, UDP-galacturonate, UDP-2-acetamido-2,6-dideoxy--L-arabino-4-hexulose, UDP-2-acetamido-2,6-dideoxy--L-lyxo-4-hexulose, UDP-N-acetyl-L-rhamnosamine (UDP-L-RhaNAc or UDP-2-acetamido-2,6-dideoxy-L-mannose), dTDP-N-acetylfucosamine, UDP-N-acetylfucosamine (UDP-L-FucNAc or UDP-2-acetamido-2,6-dideoxy-L-galactose), UDP-N-acetyl-L-pneumosamine (UDP-L-PneNAC or UDP-2-acetamido-2,6-dideoxy-L-talose), UDP-N-acetylmuramic acid, UDP-N-acetyl-L-quinovosamine (UDP-L-QuiNAc or UDP-2-acetamido-2,6-dideoxy-L-glucose), CMP-sialic acid (CMP-Neu5Ac), CMP-Neu4Ac, CMP-Neu5Ac9N.sub.3, CMP-Neu4,5Ac.sub.2, CMP-Neu5,7Ac.sub.2, CMP-Neu5,9Ac.sub.2, CMP-Neu5,7(8,9)Ac.sub.2, CMP-N-glycolylneuraminic acid (CMP-Neu5Gc), GDP-fucose (GDP-Fuc), GDP-rhamnose and UDP-xylose. In a more preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the nucleotide-activated sugar is chosen from the list comprising UDP-N-acetylglucosamine (UDP-GlcNAc), UDP-N-acetylmannosamine (UDP-ManNAc), CMP-sialic acid (CMP-Neu5Ac), CMP-Neu4Ac, CMP-Neu5Ac9N.sub.3, CMP-Neu4,5Ac.sub.2, CMP-Neu5,7Ac.sub.2, CMP-Neu5,9Ac.sub.2, CMP-Neu5,7(8,9)Ac.sub.2 and CMP-N-glycolylneuraminic acid (CMP-Neu5Gc).

[0207] According to a preferred aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the protein and/or isoproteins encoded by multiple coding DNA sequences and that is/are involved in the synthesis of a nucleotide-activated sugar is/are chosen from the list comprising mannose-6-phosphate isomerase, phosphomannomutase, mannose-1-phosphate guanylyltransferase, GDP-mannose 4,6-dehydratase, GDP-L-fucose synthase, L-fucokinase/GDP-fucose pyrophosphorylase, L-glutamine-D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase, glucosamine-6-phosphate deaminase, phosphoglucosamine mutase, N-acetylglucosamine-6-phosphate deacetylase, N-acetylglucosamine epimerase, UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase, N-acetylglucosamine-6P 2-epimerase, glucosamine 6-phosphate N-acetyltransferase, N-acetylglucosamine-6-phosphate phosphatase, N-acetylmannosamine-6-phosphate phosphatase, N-acetylmannosamine kinase, N-acetylmannosamine-6-phosphate 2-epimerase, phosphoacetylglucosamine mutase, N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate uridyltransferase, glucosamine-1-phosphate acetyltransferase, sialic acid synthase, N-acetylneuraminate lyase, N-acylneuraminate-9-phosphate synthase, N-acylneuraminate-9-phosphate phosphatase, CMP-sialic acid synthetase, galactose-1-epimerase, galactokinase, glucokinase, galactose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase, UDP-glucose 4-epimerase, glucose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase, glucophosphomutase, N-acetylglucosamine 1-phosphate uridylyltransferase, UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 4-epimerase, UDP-galactose 4-epimerase, N-acetylgalactosamine kinase, UDP-GalNAc pyrophosphorylase, mannose-1-phosphate guanyltransferase, UDP-GlcNAc 2-epimerase and ManNAc kinase.

[0208] In a further aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell is modified in the expression or activity of at least one of the protein and/or isoprotein involved in the synthesis of a nucleotide-activated sugar. In a preferred embodiment, the protein and/or isoprotein involved in the synthesis of a nucleotide-activated sugar is an endogenous protein of the cell with a modified expression or activity, preferably the endogenous protein and/or isoprotein involved in the synthesis of a nucleotide-activated sugar is overexpressed; alternatively the protein and/or isoprotein involved in the synthesis of a nucleotide-activated sugar is a heterologous protein that is heterogeneously introduced and expressed in the cell, preferably overexpressed. The endogenous protein and/or isoprotein involved in the synthesis of a nucleotide-activated sugar can have a modified expression in the cell, which also expresses a heterologous protein and/or isoprotein involved in the synthesis of a nucleotide-activated sugar.

[0209] In a preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell of disclosure, the cell is modified to produce UDP-GlcNAc from e.g., GlcNAc by expression of enzymes like e.g., an N-acetyl-D-glucosamine kinase, an N-acetylglucosamine-6-phosphate deacetylase, a phosphoglucosamine mutase, and an N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate uridyltransferase/glucosamine-1-phosphate acetyltransferase from several species including Homo sapiens, Escherichia coli. More preferably, the cell is modified for enhanced UDP-GlcNAc production. The modification can be any one or more chosen from the group comprising knock-out of an N-acetylglucosamine-6-phosphate deacetylase, over-expression of an L-glutamine-D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase, over-expression of a phosphoglucosamine mutase, and over-expression of an N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate uridyltransferase/glucosamine-1-phosphate acetyltransferase.

[0210] In another preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell of disclosure, the cell is modified to express de novo synthesis of CMP-sialic acid like e.g., CMP-Neu5Ac or CMP-Neu5Gc.

[0211] Such cell producing CMP-Neu5Ac can express an enzyme converting, e.g., sialic acid to CMP-Neu5Ac. This enzyme may be a CMP-sialic acid synthetase, like the N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase from several species including Homo sapiens, Neisseria meningitidis, and Pasteurella multocida. More preferably, the cell is modified for enhanced CMP-Neu5Ac production. The modification can be any one or more chosen from the group comprising knock-out of an N-acetylglucosamine-6-phosphate deacetylase, knock-out of an glucosamine-6-phosphate deaminase, over-expression of a CMP-sialic acid synthetase, and over-expression of an N-acetyl-D-glucosamine-2-epimerase encoding gene.

[0212] CMP-Neu5Gc can be synthesized directly from CMP-Neu5Ac via a hydroxylation reaction performed by a vertebrate CMP-Neu5Ac hydroxylase (CMAH) enzyme. More preferably, the cell is modified for enhanced CMP-Neu5Gc production.

[0213] In another preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell of disclosure, the host cell used herein is optionally genetically modified to express the de novo synthesis of GDP-fucose. GDP-fucose can be provided by an enzyme expressed in the cell or by the metabolism of the cell. Such cell producing GDP-fucose can express an enzyme converting, e.g., fucose, which is to be added to the cell, to GDP-fucose. This enzyme may be, e.g., a bifunctional fucose kinase/fucose-1-phosphate guanylyltransferase, like Fkp from Bacteroides fragilis, or the combination of one separate fucose kinase together with one separate fucose-1-phosphate guanylyltransferase like they are known from several species including Homo sapiens, Sus scrofa and Rattus norvegicus. Preferably, the cell is modified to produce GDP-fucose. More preferably, the cell is modified for enhanced GDP-fucose production. The modification can be any one or more chosen from the group comprising knock-out of an UDP-glucose:undecaprenyl-phosphate glucose-1-phosphate transferase encoding gene, over-expression of a GDP-L-fucose synthase encoding gene, over-expression of a GDP-mannose 4,6-dehydratase encoding gene, over-expression of a mannose-1-phosphate guanylyltransferase encoding gene, over-expression of a phosphomannomutase encoding gene and over-expression of a mannose-6-phosphate isomerase encoding gene.

[0214] In another preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell of disclosure, the host cell used herein is optionally genetically modified to express the de novo synthesis of UDP-Gal. UDP-Gal can be provided by an enzyme expressed in the cell or by the metabolism of the cell. Such cell producing UDP-Gal can express an enzyme converting, e.g., UDP-glucose, to UDP-Gal. This enzyme may be, e.g., the UDP-glucose-4-epimerase GalE like as known from several species including Homo sapiens, Escherichia coli, and Rattus norvegicus. Preferably, the cell is modified to produce UDP-Gal. More preferably, the cell is modified for enhanced UDP-Gal production. The modification can be any one or more chosen from the group comprising knock-out of a bifunctional 5′-nucleotidase/UDP-sugar hydrolase encoding gene, knock-out of a galactose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase encoding gene and over-expression of an UDP-glucose-4-epimerase encoding gene.

[0215] In another preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell of disclosure, the host cell used herein is optionally genetically modified to express the de novo synthesis of UDP-GalNAc. UDP-GalNAc can be synthesized from UDP-GlcNAc by the action of a single-step reaction using an UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 4-epimerase like e.g., wbgU from Plesiomonas shigelloides, gne from Yersinia enterocolitica or wbpP from Pseudomonas aeruginosa serotype 06. Preferably, the cell is modified to produce UDP-GalNAc. More preferably, the cell is modified for enhanced UDP-GalNAc production.

[0216] In another preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell of disclosure, the host cell used herein is optionally genetically modified to express the de novo synthesis of UDP-ManNAc. UDP-ManNAc can be synthesized directly from UDP-GlcNAc via an epimerization reaction performed by an UDP-GlcNAc 2-epimerase (like e.g., cap5P from Staphylococcus aureus, RffE from E. coli, Cps19fK from S. pneumoniae, and RfbC from S. enterica). Preferably, the cell is modified to produce UDP-ManNAc. More preferably, the cell is modified for enhanced UDP-ManNAc production.

[0217] According to another aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell expresses at least one glycosyltransferase chosen from the list comprising fucosyltransferases, sialyltransferases, galactosyltransferases, glucosyltransferases, mannosyltransferases, N-acetylglucosaminyltransferases, N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferases, N-acetylmannosaminyltransferases, xylosyltransferases, glucuronyltransferases, galacturonyltransferases, glucosaminyltransferases, N-glycolylneuraminyltransferases, rhamnosyltransferases, N-acetylrhamnosyltransferases, UDP-4-amino-4,6-dideoxy-N-acetyl-beta-L-altrosamine transaminases, UDP-N-acetylglucosamine enolpyruvyl transferases and fucosaminyltransferases.

[0218] In a preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the fucosyltransferase is chosen from the list comprising alpha-1,2-fucosyltransferase, alpha-1,3-fucosyltransferase, alpha-1,4-fucosyltransferase and alpha-1,6-fucosyltransferase.

[0219] In an alternative and/or additional embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the sialyltransferase is chosen from the list comprising alpha-2,3-sialyltransferase, alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase, and alpha-2,8-sialyltransferase.

[0220] In an alternative and/or additional embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the galactosyltransferase is chosen from the list comprising beta-1,3-galactosyltransferase, N-acetylglucosamine beta-1,3-galactosyltransferase, beta-1,4-galactosyltransferase, N-acetylglucosamine beta-1,4-galactosyltransferase, alpha-1,3-galactosyltransferase and alpha-1,4-galactosyltransferase.

[0221] In an alternative and/or additional embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the glucosyltransferase is chosen from the list comprising alpha-glucosyltransferase, beta-1,2-glucosyltransferase, beta-1,3-glucosyltransferase and beta-1,4-glucosyltransferase.

[0222] In an alternative and/or additional embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the mannosyltransferase is chosen from the list comprising alpha-1,2-mannosyltransferase, alpha-1,3-mannosyltransferase and alpha-1,6-mannosyltransferase.

[0223] In an alternative and/or additional embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase is chosen from the list comprising galactoside beta-1,3-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase and beta-1,6-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase.

[0224] In an alternative and/or additional embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase is chosen from the list comprising alpha-1,3-N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase.

[0225] In a further aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell is modified in the expression or activity of at least one of the glycosyltransferases. In a preferred embodiment, the glycosyltransferase is an endogenous protein of the cell with a modified expression or activity, preferably the endogenous glycosyltransferase is overexpressed; alternatively the glycosyltransferase is a heterologous protein that is heterogeneously introduced and expressed in the cell, preferably overexpressed. The endogenous glycosyltransferase can have a modified expression in the cell, which also expresses a heterologous glycosyltransferase.

[0226] In an additional and/or alternative further aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell is modified for expression and/or overexpression of multiple coding DNA sequences that encode two or more glycosyltransferases that catalyze the same chemical reaction. In a preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the one or more glycosyltransferases expressed in the cell by multiple coding DNA sequences are enzymes with alpha-1,2-; alpha-1,3-; alpha-1,4- and/or alpha-1,6-fucosyltransferase activity.

[0227] In an alternative and/or additional embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the one or more glycosyltransferases expressed in the cell by multiple coding DNA sequences are enzymes with alpha-2,3-; alpha-2,6- and/or alpha-2,8-sialyltransferase activity.

[0228] In an alternative and/or additional embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the one or more glycosyltransferases expressed in the cell by multiple coding DNA sequences are enzymes with alpha-1,3-; alpha-1,4-; beta-1,3- and/or beta-1,4-galactosyltransferase activity.

[0229] In an alternative and/or additional embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the one or more glycosyltransferases expressed in the cell by multiple coding DNA sequences are enzymes with N-acetylglucosamine beta-1,3- and/or N-acetylglucosamine beta-1,4-galactosyltransferase activity.

[0230] In an alternative and/or additional embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the one or more glycosyltransferases expressed in the cell by multiple coding DNA sequences are enzymes with alpha-; beta-1,2-; beta-1,3- and/or beta-1,4-glucosyltransferase activity.

[0231] In an alternative and/or additional embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the one or more glycosyltransferases expressed in the cell by multiple coding DNA sequences are enzymes with alpha-1,2-; alpha-1,3- and/or alpha-1,6-mannosyltransferase activity.

[0232] In an alternative and/or additional embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the one or more glycosyltransferases expressed in the cell by multiple coding DNA sequences are enzymes with galactoside beta-1,3- and/or beta-1,6-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase activity.

[0233] In an alternative and/or additional embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the one or more glycosyltransferases expressed in the cell by multiple coding DNA sequences are enzymes with alpha-1,3-N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase activity.

[0234] According to another aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the protein that is encoded by multiple coding DNA sequences is a membrane transporter protein. According to a further aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the membrane transporter protein is involved in the production of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide.

[0235] According to a preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell expresses two or more copies of a membrane transporter protein that is chosen from the list comprising a siderophore exporter, an ABC transporter, an MFS transporter and a Sugar Efflux Transporter. In an exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises two or more coding DNA sequences that encode for the same siderophore exporter like e.g., the E. coli genes comprising entS with SEQ ID NO:49, MdfA with SEQ ID NO:50 and iceT with SEQ ID NO:51. In another and/or additional exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises two or more coding DNA sequences that encode for the same ABC transporter like e.g., oppF from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:52, lmrA from Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis bv. diacetylactis and Blon_2475 from Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis. In another and/or additional exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises two or more coding DNA sequences that encode for the same MFS transporter like e.g., the E. coli genes comprising entS with SEQ ID NO:49, MdfA with SEQ ID NO:50 and iceT with SEQ ID NO:51. In another and/or additional exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises two or more coding DNA sequences that encode for the same Sugar Efflux Transporter like e.g., the E. coli genes comprising setA with SEQ ID NO:55, setB with SEQ ID NO:56 and setC with SEQ ID NO:57.

[0236] In another and/or additional exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises one coding DNA sequence of a siderophore exporter combined with two or more coding DNA sequences of any one or more of an ABC transporter, an MFS transporter and/or a Sugar Efflux Transporter. In another and/or additional exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises one coding DNA sequence of an ABC transporter combined with two or more coding DNA sequences of any one or more of a siderophore exporter, an MFS transporter and/or a Sugar Efflux Transporter. In another and/or additional exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises one coding DNA sequence of an MFS transporter combined with two or more coding DNA sequences of any one or more of a siderophore exporter, an ABC transporter and/or a Sugar Efflux Transporter. In another and/or additional exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises one coding DNA sequence of a Sugar Efflux Transporter combined with two or more coding DNA sequences of any one or more of a siderophore exporter, an ABC transporter and/or an MFS transporter.

[0237] In another and/or additional exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises one coding DNA sequence of a siderophore exporter and one coding DNA sequence of an ABC transporter combined with two or more coding DNA sequences of any one or more of an MFS transporter and/or a Sugar Efflux Transporter. In another and/or additional exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises one coding DNA sequence of a siderophore exporter and one coding DNA sequence of an MFS transporter combined with two or more coding DNA sequences of any one or more of an ABC transporter and/or a Sugar Efflux Transporter. In another and/or additional exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises one coding DNA sequence of a siderophore exporter and one coding DNA sequence of a Sugar Efflux Transporter combined with two or more coding DNA sequences of any one or more of an ABC transporter and/or an MFS transporter. In another and/or additional exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises one coding DNA sequence of an ABC transporter and one coding DNA sequence of an MFS transporter combined with two or more coding DNA sequences of any one or more of a siderophore exporter and/or a Sugar Efflux Transporter. In another and/or additional exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises one coding DNA sequence of an ABC transporter and one coding DNA sequence of a Sugar Efflux Transporter combined with two or more coding DNA sequences of any one or more of a siderophore exporter and/or an MFS transporter. In another and/or additional exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises one coding DNA sequence of an MFS transporter and one coding DNA sequence of a Sugar Efflux Transporter combined with two or more coding DNA sequences of any one or more of a siderophore exporter and/or an ABC transporter.

[0238] In another and/or additional exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises one coding DNA sequence of a siderophore exporter, one coding DNA sequence of an ABC transporter and one coding DNA sequence of an MFS transporter combined with two or more coding DNA sequences of a Sugar Efflux Transporter. In another and/or additional exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises one coding DNA sequence of a siderophore exporter, one coding DNA sequence of an MFS transporter and one coding DNA sequence of a Sugar Efflux Transporter combined with two or more coding DNA sequences of an ABC transporter. In another and/or additional exemplary embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises one coding DNA sequence of an ABC transporter, one coding DNA sequence of an MFS transporter and one coding DNA sequence of a Sugar Efflux Transporter combined with two or more coding DNA sequences of a siderophore exporter.

[0239] In a further aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell is modified in the expression or activity of at least one of the membrane transporter protein. In a preferred embodiment, the membrane transporter protein is an endogenous protein of the cell with a modified expression or activity, preferably the endogenous membrane transporter protein is overexpressed; alternatively the membrane transporter protein is a heterologous protein that is heterogeneously introduced and expressed in the cell, preferably overexpressed. The endogenous membrane transporter protein can have a modified expression in the cell, which also expresses a heterologous membrane transporter protein.

[0240] According to another aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide is chosen from the list comprising a milk oligosaccharide, O-antigen, enterobacterial common antigen (ECA), the oligosaccharide repeats present in capsular polysaccharides, peptidoglycan, amino-sugars and Lewis-type antigen oligosaccharides. In a preferred embodiment, the milk oligosaccharide is a mammalian milk oligosaccharide. In a more preferred embodiment, the milk oligosaccharide is a human milk oligosaccharide.

[0241] According to another aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises a fucosylation pathway as described herein. According to a preferred embodiment, at least one protein encoding an enzyme as part of a fucosylation pathway is encoded by multiple coding DNA sequences that encode one or more enzymes that catalyze the same chemical reaction. According to a more preferred embodiment, at least one protein encoding an enzyme as part of a fucosylation pathway is encoded by two coding DNA sequences that encode one or more enzymes that catalyze the same chemical reaction. According to an even more preferred embodiment, at least one protein encoding an enzyme as part of a fucosylation pathway is encoded by three or more coding DNA sequences that encode one or more enzymes that catalyze the same chemical reaction.

[0242] According to another aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises a galactosylation pathway as described herein. According to a preferred embodiment, at least one protein encoding an enzyme as part of a galactosylation pathway is encoded by multiple coding DNA sequences that encode one or more enzymes that catalyze the same chemical reaction. According to a more preferred embodiment, at least one protein encoding an enzyme as part of a galactosylation pathway is encoded by two coding DNA sequences that encode one or more enzymes that catalyze the same chemical reaction. According to an even more preferred embodiment, at least one protein encoding an enzyme as part of a galactosylation pathway is encoded by three or more coding DNA sequences that encode one or more enzymes that catalyze the same chemical reaction.

[0243] According to another aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises an N-acetylglucosaminylation pathway as described herein. According to a preferred embodiment, at least one protein encoding an enzyme as part of an N-acetylglucosaminylation pathway is encoded by multiple coding DNA sequences that encode one or more enzymes that catalyze the same chemical reaction. According to a more preferred embodiment, at least one protein encoding an enzyme as part of an N-acetylglucosaminylation pathway is encoded by two coding DNA sequences that encode one or more enzymes that catalyze the same chemical reaction. According to an even more preferred embodiment, at least one protein encoding an enzyme as part of an N-acetylglucosaminylation pathway is encoded by three or more coding DNA sequences that encode one or more enzymes that catalyze the same chemical reaction.

[0244] According to another preferred aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell is capable to synthesize N-acetylmannosamine (ManNAc), N-acetylmannosamine-6-phosphate (ManNAc-6-phosphate) and/or phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP).

[0245] In a preferred embodiment, the cell comprises a pathway for production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide comprising a pathway for production of ManNAc. ManNAc can be provided by an enzyme expressed in the cell or by the mechanism of the cell. Such cell producing ManNAc can express an N-acylglucosamine 2-epimerase like is known e.g., from several species including Bacteroides ovatus, E. coli, Homo sapiens, Rattus norvegicus that converts GlcNAc into ManNAc. Alternatively, and/or additionally, the cell producing ManNAc can express an UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase like is known e.g., from several species including Campylobacter jejuni, E. coli, Neisseria meningitidis, Bacillus subtilis, Citrobacter rodentium that converts UDP-GlcNAc into ManNAc. GlcNAc and/or UDP-GlcNAc can be added to the cell and/or provided by an enzyme expressed in the cell or by the mechanism of the cell as described herein.

[0246] In a more preferred embodiment, the cell is modified for enhanced ManNAc production. The modification can be any one or more chosen from the group comprising knock-out of N-acetylmannosamine kinase, over-expression of N-acetylneuraminate lyase.

[0247] In another preferred embodiment, the cell comprises a pathway for production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide comprising a pathway for production of ManNAc-6-phosphate. ManNAc-6-phosphate can be provided by an enzyme expressed in the cell or by the mechanism of the cell. Such cell producing ManNAc-6-phosphate can express a bifunctional UDP-GlcNAc 2-epimerase/kinase like is known e.g., from several species including Homo sapiens, Rattus norvegicus and Mus musculus that converts UDP-GlcNAc into ManNAc-6-phosphate. Alternatively, and/or additionally, the cell producing ManNAc-6-phosphate can express an N-acetylmannosamine-6-phosphate 2-epimerase that converts GlcNAc-6-phosphate into ManNAc-6-phosphate. UDP-GlcNAc and/or GlcNAc-6-phosphate can be added to the cell and/or provided by an enzyme expressed in the cell or by the mechanism of the cell as described herein. In a more preferred embodiment, the cell is modified for enhanced ManNAc-6-phosphate production. The modification can be any one or more chosen from the group comprising over-expression of N-acetylglucosamine-6-phosphate deacetylase, over-expression of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine kinase, over-expression of phosphoglucosamine mutase, over-expression of N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate uridyltransferase/glucosamine-1-phosphate acetyltransferase.

[0248] In another preferred embodiment, the cell comprises a pathway for production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide comprising a pathway for production of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP).

[0249] In another preferred embodiment, the cell comprises a pathway for production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide comprising any one or more modifications for enhanced production and/or supply of PEP.

[0250] In a preferred embodiment and as a means for enhanced production and/or supply of PEP, one or more PEP-dependent, sugar-transporting phosphotransferase system(s) is/are disrupted such as but not limited to: 1) the N-acetyl-D-glucosamine Npi-phosphotransferase (EC 2.7.1.193), which is, for instance, encoded by the nagE gene (or the cluster nagABCD) in E. coli or Bacillus species, 2) ManXYZ, which encodes the Enzyme 11 Man complex (mannose PTS permease, protein-Npi-phosphohistidine-D-mannose phosphotransferase) that imports exogenous hexoses (mannose, glucose, glucosamine, fructose, 2-deoxyglucose, mannosamine, N-acetylglucosamine, etc.) and releases the phosphate esters into the cell cytoplasm, 3) the glucose-specific PTS transporter (for instance, encoded by PtsG/Crr) which takes up glucose and forms glucose-6-phosphate in the cytoplasm, 4) the sucrose-specific PTS transporter, which takes up sucrose and forms sucrose-6-phosphate in the cytoplasm, 5) the fructose-specific PTS transporter (for instance, encoded by the genesfruA andfruB and the kinasefruK, which takes up fructose and forms in a first step fructose-1-phosphate and in a second step fructose1,6 bisphosphate, 6) the lactose PTS transporter (for instance, encoded by lacE in Lactococcus casei) which takes up lactose and forms lactose-6-phosphate, 7) the galactitol-specific PTS enzyme, which takes up galactitol and/or sorbitol and forms galactitol-1-phosphate or sorbitol-6-phosphate respectively, 8) the mannitol-specific PTS enzyme, which takes up mannitol and/or sorbitol and forms mannitol-1-phosphate or sorbitol-6-phosphate respectively, and 9) the trehalose-specific PTS enzyme, which takes up trehalose and forms trehalose-6-phosphate.

[0251] In another and/or additional preferred embodiment and as a means for enhanced production and/or supply of PEP, the full PTS system is disrupted by disrupting the PtsIH/Crr gene cluster. PtsI (Enzyme I) is a cytoplasmic protein that serves as the gateway for the phosphoenolpyruvate:sugar phosphotransferase system (PTS.sup.sugar) of E. coli K-12. PtsI is one of two (PtsI and PtsH) sugar non-specific protein constituents of the PTS.sup.sugar, which along with a sugar-specific inner membrane permease effects a phosphotransfer cascade that results in the coupled phosphorylation and transport of a variety of carbohydrate substrates. HPr (histidine containing protein) is one of two sugar-non-specific protein constituents of the PTS.sup.sugar. It accepts a phosphoryl group from phosphorylated Enzyme I (PtsI-P) and then transfers it to the EIIA domain of any one of the many sugar-specific enzymes (collectively known as Enzymes II) of the PTS.sup.sugar. Crr or EIIA.sup.Glc is phosphorylated by PEP in a reaction requiring PtsH and PtsI.

[0252] In another and/or additional preferred embodiment, the cell is further modified to compensate for the deletion of a PTS system of a carbon source by the introduction and/or overexpression of the corresponding permease. These are e.g., permeases or ABC transporters that comprise but are not limited to transporters that specifically import lactose such as e.g., the transporter encoded by the LacY gene from E. coli, sucrose such as e.g., the transporter encoded by the cscB gene from E. coli, glucose such as e.g., the transporter encoded by the galP gene from E. coli, fructose such as e.g., the transporter encoded by the fruI gene from Streptococcus mutans, or the Sorbitol/mannitol ABC transporter such as the transporter encoded by the cluster SmoEFGK of Rhodobacter sphaeroides, the trehalose/sucrose/maltose transporter such as the transporter encoded by the gene cluster ThuEFGK of Sinorhizobium meliloti and the N-acetylglucosamine/galactose/glucose transporter such as the transporter encoded by NagP of Shewanella oneidensis. Examples of combinations of PTS deletions with overexpression of alternative transporters are: 1) the deletion of the glucose PTS system, e.g., ptsG gene, combined with the introduction and/or overexpression of a glucose permease (e.g., galP of glcP), 2) the deletion of the fructose PTS system, e.g., one or more of thefruB, fruA, fruK genes, combined with the introduction and/or overexpression of fructose permease, e.g., fruI, 3) the deletion of the lactose PTS system, combined with the introduction and/or overexpression of lactose permease, e.g., LacY, and/or 4) the deletion of the sucrose PTS system, combined with the introduction and/or overexpression of a sucrose permease, e.g., cscB.

[0253] In a further preferred embodiment, the cell is modified to compensate for the deletion of a PTS system of a carbon source by the introduction of carbohydrate kinases, such as glucokinase (EC 2.7.1.1, EC 2.7.1.2, EC 2.7.1.63), galactokinase (EC 2.7.1.6), and/or fructokinase (EC 2.7.1.3, EC 2.7.1.4). Examples of combinations of PTS deletions with overexpression of alternative transporters and a kinase are: 1) the deletion of the glucose PTS system, e.g., ptsG gene, combined with the introduction and/or overexpression of a glucose permease (e.g., galP of glcP), combined with the introduction and/or overexpression of a glucokinase (e.g., glk), and/or 2) the deletion of the fructose PTS system, e.g., one or more of thefruB, fruA, fruK genes, combined with the introduction and/or overexpression of fructose permease, e.g., fruI, combined with the introduction and/or overexpression of a fructokinase (e.g., frk or mak).

[0254] In another and/or additional preferred embodiment and as a means for enhanced production and/or supply of PEP, the cell is modified by the introduction of or modification in any one or more of the list comprising phosphoenolpyruvate synthase activity (EC: 2.7.9.2 encoded, for instance, in E. coli by ppsA), phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase activity (EC 4.1.1.32 or EC 4.1.1.49 encoded, for instance, in Corynebacterium glutamicum by PCK or in E. coli by pckA, resp.), phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase activity (EC 4.1.1.31 encoded, for instance, in E. coli by ppc), oxaloacetate decarboxylase activity (EC 4.1.1.112 encoded, for instance, in E. coli by eda), pyruvate kinase activity (EC 2.7.1.40 encoded, for instance, in E. coli by pykA and pykF), pyruvate carboxylase activity (EC 6.4.1.1 encoded, for instance, in B. subtilis by pyc) and malate dehydrogenase activity (EC 1.1.1.38 or EC 1.1.1.40 encoded, for instance, in E. coli by maeA or maeB, resp.).

[0255] In a more preferred embodiment, the cell is modified to overexpress any one or more of the polypeptides comprising ppsA from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:41, PCK from C. glutamicum with SEQ ID NO:42, pcka from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:43, eda from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:44, maeA from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:45 and maeB from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:46.

[0256] In another and/or additional preferred embodiment, the cell is modified to express any one or more of a functional homolog, variant or derivative of any one of SEQ ID NO:41, 42, 43, 44, 45 or 46 having at least 80% overall sequence identity to the full-length of any one of the polypeptide with SEQ ID NOs:41, 42, 43, 44, 45 or 46, and having phosphoenolpyruvate synthase activity, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase activity, oxaloacetate decarboxylase activity, or malate dehydrogenase activity, respectively.

[0257] In another and/or additional preferred embodiment and as a means for enhanced production and/or supply of PEP, the cell is modified by a reduced activity of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase activity, and/or pyruvate kinase activity, preferably a deletion of the genes encoding for phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, the pyruvate carboxylase activity and/or pyruvate kinase.

[0258] In an exemplary embodiment, the cell is genetically modified by different adaptations such as the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the deletion of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase combined with the deletion of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of oxaloacetate decarboxylase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene, the overexpression of oxaloacetate decarboxylase combined with the deletion of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of oxaloacetate decarboxylase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene, the overexpression of malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene and/or the overexpression of malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate carboxylase gene.

[0259] In another exemplary embodiment, the cell is genetically modified by different adaptations such as the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase combined with the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase combined with the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase, the overexpression of oxaloacetate decarboxylase combined with the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase and the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase combined with the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase and the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase and/or the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase and the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase.

[0260] In another exemplary embodiment, the cell is genetically modified by different adaptations such as the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase combined with the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase combined with the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene, the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase combined with the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase and the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene, the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase combined with the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase and the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined the overexpression of oxaloacetate decarboxylase and the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene.

[0261] In another exemplary embodiment, the cell is genetically modified by different adaptations such as the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase combined with the deletion of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase combined with the deletion of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase combined with the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase combined with the deletion of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase combined with the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase combined with the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase combined with the deletion of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase and the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase combined with the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase and the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase and the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene.

[0262] In another exemplary embodiment, the cell is genetically modified by different adaptations such as the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase combined with the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase combined with the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase combined with the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase and the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase combined with the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase and the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase and the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate carboxylase gene.

[0263] In another exemplary embodiment, the cell is genetically modified by different adaptations such as the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene and a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene and a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene and a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase combined with the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene and a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase combined with the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene and a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase combined with the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene and a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene and a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene and a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase and the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene and a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase combined with the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase and the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene and a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase and the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene and a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene.

[0264] In another exemplary embodiment, the cell is genetically modified by different adaptations such as the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene and a pyruvate carboxylase gene and a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene and a pyruvate carboxylase gene and a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene and a pyruvate carboxylase gene and a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase combined with the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene and a pyruvate carboxylase gene and a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase combined with the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene and a pyruvate carboxylase gene and a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase combined with the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene and a pyruvate carboxylase gene and a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene and a pyruvate carboxylase gene and a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene and a pyruvate carboxylase gene and a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase and the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene and pyruvate carboxylase gene and a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase combined with the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase and the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene and a pyruvate carboxylase gene and a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene, the overexpression of phosphoenolpyruvate synthase combined with the overexpression of an oxaloacetate decarboxylase and the overexpression of a malate dehydrogenase combined with the deletion of a pyruvate kinase gene and a pyruvate carboxylase gene and a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene.

[0265] According to another aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises at least one coding DNA sequence encoding a protein having N-acetylneuraminate synthase activity, two or more coding DNA sequences encoding 2 or more isoproteins having N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase activity and two or more copies of one or more coding DNA sequences of an alpha-2,3-sialyltransferase, an alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase, and/or an alpha-2,8-sialyltransferase. In a preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the protein having N-acetylneuraminate synthase activity is the N-acetylneuraminate synthase from N. meningitidis (NmNeuB) with SEQ ID NO:01. In an alternative preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the protein having N-acetylneuraminate synthase activity is a functional homolog or functional fragment of the N-acetylneuraminate synthase from N. meningitidis (NmNeuB) with SEQ ID NO:01. In another alternative preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the protein having N-acetylneuraminate synthase activity is a polypeptide sequence having at least 80% sequence identity to the full-length sequence of the N-acetylneuraminate synthase from N. meningitidis (NmNeuB) with SEQ ID NO:01 and having N-acetylneuraminate synthase activity. In another preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the isoproteins having N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase activity are chosen from the list comprising the protein from Campylobacter jejuni (CjNeuA) with SEQ ID NO:02, Helicobacter influenzae (HiNeuA) with SEQ ID NO:03 and Pasteurella multocida (PmultNeuA) with SEQ ID NO:04. In an alternative preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the isoproteins having N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase activity are a functional homolog or functional fragment of any one of the proteins with SEQ ID NOs:02, 03 or 04. In another alternative preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the isoproteins having N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase activity are a polypeptide sequence having at least 80% sequence identity to the full-length sequence of any one of the proteins with SEQ ID NO:02, 03 or 04, respectively, and having N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase activity.

[0266] According to another aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises two or more copies of a coding DNA sequence encoding an enzyme having L-glutamine-D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase activity. In a preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell, the cell comprises two or more copies of a coding DNA sequence encoding the enzyme from E. coli (glmS*54) with SEQ ID NO:05. In another and/or additional preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell, the cell comprises two or more copies of a coding DNA sequence encoding a functional homolog or functional fragment of the L-glutamine-D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase from E. coli (glmS*54) with SEQ ID NO:05. In another and/or additional preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell, the cell comprises two or more copies of a coding DNA sequence encoding a polypeptide sequence having at least 80% sequence identity to the full-length sequence of the L-glutamine-D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase from E. coli (glmS*54) with SEQ ID NO:05 and having L-glutamine D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase activity.

[0267] According to another and/or additional aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises two or more copies of a coding DNA sequence encoding an enzyme having glucosamine 6-phosphate N-acetyltransferase activity. In a preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell, the cell comprises two or more copies of a coding DNA sequence encoding the enzyme from Saccharomyces cerevisiae (GNA1) with SEQ ID NO:06. In another and/or additional preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell, the cell comprises two or more copies of a coding DNA sequence encoding a functional homolog or functional fragment of the glucosamine 6-phosphate N-acetyltransferase from S. cerevisiae (GNA1) with SEQ ID NO:06. In another and/or additional preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell, the cell comprises two or more copies of a coding DNA sequence encoding a polypeptide sequence having at least 80% sequence identity to the full-length sequence of the glucosamine 6-phosphate N-acetyltransferase from S. cerevisiae (GNA1) with SEQ ID NO:06 and having glucosamine 6-phosphate N-acetyltransferase activity.

[0268] According to another preferred aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises a modification for reduced production of acetate. The modification can be any one or more chosen from the group comprising overexpression of an acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase, a full or partial knock-out or rendered less functional pyruvate dehydrogenase and a full or partial knock-out or rendered less functional lactate dehydrogenase.

[0269] In a further aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell is modified in the expression or activity of at least one acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase like e.g., acs from E. coli, S. cerevisiae, H. sapiens, M. musculus. In a preferred embodiment, the acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase is an endogenous protein of the cell with a modified expression or activity, preferably the endogenous acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase is overexpressed; alternatively, the acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase is a heterologous protein that is heterogeneously introduced and expressed in the cell, preferably overexpressed. The endogenous acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase can have a modified expression in the cell, which also expresses a heterologous can have a modified expression in the cell, which also expresses a heterologous. In a more preferred embodiment, the cell is modified in the expression or activity of the acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase acs from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:47. In another and/or additional preferred embodiment, the cell is modified in the expression or activity of a functional homolog, variant or derivative of SEQ ID NO:47 having at least 80% overall sequence identity to the full-length of the polypeptide with SEQ ID NO:47 and having acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase activity.

[0270] In an alternative and/or additional further aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell is modified in the expression or activity of at least one pyruvate dehydrogenase like e.g., from E. coli, S. cerevisiae, H. sapiens and R. norvegicus. In a preferred embodiment, the cell has been modified to have at least one partially or fully knocked out or mutated pyruvate dehydrogenase encoding gene by means generally known by the person skilled in the art resulting in at least one protein with less functional or being disabled for pyruvate dehydrogenase activity. In a more preferred embodiment, the cell has a full knock-out in the poxB encoding gene resulting in a cell lacking pyruvate dehydrogenase activity.

[0271] In an alternative and/or additional further aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell is modified in the expression or activity of at least one lactate dehydrogenase like e.g., from E. coli, S. cerevisiae, H. sapiens and R. norvegicus. In a preferred embodiment, the cell has been modified to have at least one partially or fully knocked out or mutated lactate dehydrogenase encoding gene by means generally known by the person skilled in the art resulting in at least one protein with less functional or being disabled for lactate dehydrogenase activity. In a more preferred embodiment, the cell has a full knock-out in the ldhA encoding gene resulting in a cell lacking lactate dehydrogenase activity.

[0272] According to another preferred aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises a lower or reduced expression and/or abolished, impaired, reduced or delayed activity of any one or more of the proteins comprising beta-galactosidase, galactoside O-acetyltransferase, N-acetylglucosamine-6-phosphate deacetylase, glucosamine-6-phosphate deaminase, N-acetylglucosamine repressor, ribonucleotide monophosphatase, EIICBA-Nag, UDP-glucose undecaprenyl-phosphate glucose-1-phosphatetransferase, L-fuculokinase, L-fucose isomerase, N-acetylneuraminate lyase, N-acetylmannosamine kinase, N-acetylmannosamine-6-phosphate 2-epimerase, EIIAB-Man, EIIC-Man, EIID-Man, ushA, galactose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase, glucose-1-phosphate adenylyltransferase, glucose-1-phosphatase, ATP-dependent 6-phosphofructokinase isozyme 1, ATP-dependent 6-phosphofructokinase isozyme 2, glucose-6-phosphate isomerase, aerobic respiration control protein, transcriptional repressor IclR, lon protease, glucose-specific translocating phosphotransferase enzyme IIBC component ptsG, glucose-specific translocating phosphotransferase (PTS) enzyme IIBC component malX, enzyme IIA.sup.Glc, beta-glucoside specific PTS enzyme II, fructose-specific PTS multiphosphoryl transfer protein FruA and FruB, ethanol dehydrogenase aldehyde dehydrogenase, pyruvate-formate lyase, acetate kinase, phosphoacyltransferase, phosphate acetyltransferase, pyruvate decarboxylase.

[0273] According to another preferred aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell comprises a catabolic pathway for selected mono-, di- or oligosaccharides, which is at least partially inactivated, the mono-, di-, or oligosaccharides being involved in and/or required for the synthesis of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide.

[0274] According to another preferred aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell is using a precursor for the synthesis of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide. Herein, the precursor is fed to the cell from the cultivation medium. In another preferred embodiment, the cell is producing a precursor for the synthesis of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide.

[0275] According to another preferred aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell produces 90 g/L or more of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide in the whole broth and/or supernatant. In a more preferred embodiment, the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide produced in the whole broth and/or supernatant has a purity of at least 80% measured on the total amount of sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide and its precursor produced by the cell in the whole broth and/or supernatant, respectively.

[0276] Another aspect of the disclosure provides for a method and a cell wherein a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide is produced in and/or by a bacterial, fungal, yeast, insect, plant, animal or protozoan expression system or cell as described herein. The expression system or cell is chosen from the list comprising a bacterium, a fungus, or a yeast, or, refers to a plant, animal, or protozoan cell. The latter bacterium preferably belongs to the phylum of the Proteobacteria or the phylum of the Firmicutes or the phylum of the Cyanobacteria or the phylum Deinococcus-Thermus. The latter bacterium belonging to the phylum Proteobacteria belongs preferably to the family Enterobacteriaceae, preferably to the species Escherichia coli. The latter bacterium preferably relates to any strain belonging to the species Escherichia coli such as but not limited to Escherichia coli B, Escherichia coli C, Escherichia coli W, Escherichia coli K12, Escherichia coli Nissle. More specifically, the latter term relates to cultivated Escherichia coli strains—designated as E. coli K12 strains—which are well-adapted to the laboratory environment, and, unlike wild type strains, have lost their ability to thrive in the intestine. Well-known examples of the E. coli K12 strains are K12 Wild type, W3110, MG1655, M182, MC1000, MC1060, MC1061, MC4100, JM101, NZN111 and AA200. Hence, preferably the disclosure specifically relates to a mutated and/or transformed Escherichia coli strain as indicated above wherein the E. coli strain is a K12 strain. More specifically, the disclosure relates to a mutated and/or transformed Escherichia coli strain as indicated above wherein the K12 strain is E. coli MG1655. The latter bacterium belonging to the phylum Firmicutes belongs preferably to the Bacilli, preferably from the species Bacillus. The latter fungus belongs preferably to the genus Rhizopus, Dictyostelium, Penicillium, Mucor or Aspergillus. The latter yeast preferably belongs to the phylum of the Ascomycota or the phylum of the Basidiomycota or the phylum of the Deuteromycota or the phylum of the Zygomycetes. The latter yeast belongs preferably to the genus Saccharomyces, Zygosaccharomyces, Pichia, Komagataella, Hansenula, Yarrowia, Starmerella, Kluyveromyces or Debaromyces. Plant cells include cells of flowering and non-flowering plants, as well as algal cells, for example, Chlamydomonas, Chlorella, etc. Preferably, the plant is a tobacco, alfalfa, rice, tomato, cotton, rapeseed, soy, maize or corn plant. The latter animal cell is preferably derived from non-human mammals (e.g., cattle, buffalo, pig, sheep, mouse, rat), birds (e.g., chicken, duck, ostrich, turkey, pheasant), fish (e.g., swordfish, salmon, tuna, sea bass, trout, catfish), invertebrates (e.g., lobster, crab, shrimp, clams, oyster, mussel, sea urchin), reptiles (e.g., snake, alligator, turtle), amphibians (e.g., frogs) or insects (e.g., fly, nematode) or is a genetically modified cell line derived from human cells excluding embryonic stem cells. Both human and non-human mammalian cells are preferably chosen from the list comprising an epithelial cell like e.g., a mammary epithelial cell, an embryonic kidney cell, a fibroblast cell, a COS cell, a Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell, a murine myeloma cell like e.g., an N20, SP2/0 or YB2/0 cell, an NIH-3T3 cell, a non-mammary adult stem cell or derivatives thereof such as described in WO 2021067641. The latter insect cell is preferably derived from Spodoptera frugiperda like e.g., Sf9 or Sf21 cells, Bombyx mori, Mamestra brassicae, Trichoplusia ni like e.g., BTI-TN-5B1-4 cells or Drosophila melanogaster like e.g., Drosophila S2 cells. The latter protozoan cell preferably is a Leishmania tarentolae cell.

[0277] In a preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell is a viable Gram-negative bacterium that comprises a reduced or abolished synthesis of poly-N-acetyl-glucosamine (PNAG), Enterobacterial Common Antigen (ECA), cellulose, colanic acid, core oligosaccharides, Osmoregulated Periplasmic Glucans (OPG), Glucosylglycerol, glycan, and/or trehalose compared to a non-modified progenitor.

[0278] In a more preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell, the reduced or abolished synthesis of poly-N-acetyl-glucosamine (PNAG), Enterobacterial Common Antigen (ECA), cellulose, colanic acid, core oligosaccharides, Osmoregulated Periplasmic Glucans (OPG), Glucosylglycerol, glycan, and/or trehalose is provided by a mutation in any one or more glycosyltransferases involved in the synthesis of any one of the poly-N-acetyl-glucosamine (PNAG), Enterobacterial Common Antigen (ECA), cellulose, colanic acid, core oligosaccharides, Osmoregulated Periplasmic Glucans (OPG), Glucosylglycerol, glycan, and/or trehalose, wherein the mutation provides for a deletion or lower expression of any one of the glycosyltransferases. The glycosyltransferases comprise glycosyltransferase genes encoding poly-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine synthase subunits, UDP-N-acetylglucosamine-undecaprenyl-phosphate N-acetylglucosaminephosphotransferase, Fuc4NAc (4-acetamido-4,6-dideoxy-D-galactose) transferase, UDP-N-acetyl-D-mannosaminuronic acid transferase, the glycosyltransferase genes encoding the cellulose synthase catalytic subunits, the cellulose biosynthesis protein, colanic acid biosynthesis glucuronosyltransferase, colanic acid biosynthesis galactosyltransferase, colanic acid biosynthesis fucosyltransferase, UDP-glucose:undecaprenyl-phosphate glucose-1-phosphate transferase, putative colanic biosynthesis glycosyl transferase, UDP-glucuronate:LPS(HepIII) glycosyltransferase, ADP-heptose-LPS heptosyltransferase 2, ADP-heptose:LPS heptosyltransferase 1, putative ADP-heptose:LPS heptosyltransferase 4, lipopolysaccharide core biosynthesis protein, UDP-glucose:(glucosyl)LPS α-1,2-glucosyltransferase, UDP-D-glucose:(glucosyl)LPS α-1,3-glucosyltransferase, UDP-D-galactose:(glucosyl)lipopolysaccharide-1,6-D-galactosyltransferase, lipopolysaccharide glucosyltransferase I, lipopolysaccharide core heptosyltransferase 3,3-1,6-galactofuranosyltransferase, undecaprenyl-phosphate 4-deoxy-4-formamido-L-arabinose transferase, lipid IVA 4-amino-4-deoxy-L-arabinosyltransferase, bactoprenol glucosyl transferase, putative family 2 glycosyltransferase, the osmoregulated periplasmic glucans (OPG) biosynthesis protein G, OPG biosynthesis protein H, glucosylglycerate phosphorylase, glycogen synthase, 1,4-α-glucan branching enzyme, 4-α-glucanotransferase and trehalose-6-phosphate synthase. In an exemplary embodiment, the cell is mutated in any one or more of the glycosyltransferases comprising pgaC, pgaD, rfe, rffT, rffM, bcsA, bcsB, bcsC, wcaA, wcaC, wcaE, wcaI, wcaJ, wcaL, waaH, waaF, waaC, waaU, waaZ, waaJ, waaO, waaB, waaS, waaG, waaQ, wbbl, arnC, arnT, yfdH, wbbK, opgG, opgH, ycjM, glgA, glgB, malQ, otsA and yaiP, wherein the mutation provides for a deletion or lower expression of any one of the glycosyltransferases.

[0279] In an alternative and/or additional preferred embodiment of the method and/or cell, the reduced or abolished synthesis of poly-N-acetyl-glucosamine (PNAG) is provided by over-expression of a carbon storage regulator encoding gene, deletion of a Na+/H+antiporter regulator encoding gene and/or deletion of the sensor histidine kinase encoding gene.

[0280] Another aspect provides for a cell to be stably cultured in a medium, wherein the medium can be any type of growth medium comprising minimal medium, complex medium or growth medium enriched in certain compounds, for example, but not limited to vitamins, trace elements, amino acids.

[0281] The cell as used herein is capable to grow on a monosaccharide, disaccharide, oligosaccharide, polysaccharide, polyol, glycerol, a complex medium or a mixture thereof as the main carbon source. With the term main is meant the most important carbon source for the cell for the production of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide of interest, biomass formation, carbon dioxide and/or by-products formation (such as acids and/or alcohols, such as acetate, lactate, and/or ethanol), i.e., 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 98, 99% of all the required carbon is derived from the above-indicated carbon source. In one embodiment of the disclosure, the carbon source is the sole carbon source for the organism, i.e., 100% of all the required carbon is derived from the above-indicated carbon source. Common main carbon sources comprise but are not limited to glucose, glycerol, fructose, sucrose, maltose, lactose, arabinose, malto-oligosaccharides, maltotriose, sorbitol, xylose, rhamnose, galactose, mannose, methanol, ethanol, trehalose, starch, cellulose, hemi-cellulose, molasses, corn-steep liquor, high-fructose syrup, acetate, citrate, lactate and pyruvate. As used herein, a precursor as defined herein cannot be used as a carbon source for the production of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide.

[0282] According to another aspect of the method and/or cell of the disclosure, the cell is capable to synthesize a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising at least one sialylated oligosaccharide. In an alternative and/or additional aspect, the cell is capable to synthesize a mixture of di- and oligosaccharides comprising at least one sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide; alternatively, the cell is capable to synthesize a mixture of sialic acid, di- and/or oligosaccharides.

[0283] In a further preferred aspect, the method for the production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide as described herein comprises at least one of the following steps: [0284] i) Adding to the culture medium in a reactor at least one precursor and/or acceptor feed wherein the total reactor volume ranges from 250 mL (millilitre) to 10,000 m.sup.3 (cubic meter), preferably in a continuous manner, and preferably so that the final volume of the culture medium is not more than three-fold, preferably not more than two-fold, more preferably less than 2-fold of the volume of the culture medium before the addition of the precursor and/or acceptor feed; [0285] ii) Adding at least one precursor and/or acceptor feed in a continuous manner to the culture medium over the course of 1 day, 2 days, 3 days, 4 days, 5 days by means of a feeding solution; [0286] iii) Adding at least one precursor and/or acceptor feed in a continuous manner to the culture medium over the course of 1 day, 2 days, 3 days, 4 days, 5 days by means of a feeding solution and wherein preferably, the pH of the feeding solution is set between 3 and 7 and wherein preferably, the temperature of the feeding solution is kept between 20° C. and 80° C.; [0287] the method resulting in a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide with a concentration of at least 50 g/L, preferably at least 75 g/L, more preferably at least 90 g/L, more preferably at least 100 g/L, more preferably at least 125 g/L, more preferably at least 150 g/L, more preferably at least 175 g/L, more preferably at least 200 g/L in the final volume of the culture medium.

[0288] In another and/or additional further preferred aspect, the method for the production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide as described herein comprises at least one of the following steps: [0289] i) Adding to the culture medium at least one precursor and/or acceptor in one pulse or in a discontinuous (pulsed) manner wherein the total reactor volume ranges from 250 mL (millilitre) to 10,000 m.sup.3 (cubic meter), preferably so that the final volume of the culture medium is not more than three-fold, preferably not more than two-fold, more preferably less than 2-fold of the volume of the culture medium before the addition of the precursor and/or acceptor feed pulse(s); [0290] ii) Adding at least one precursor and/or acceptor feed in a discontinuous (pulsed) manner to the culture medium over the course of 5 minutes, 10 minutes, 30 minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours, 4 hours, 10 hours, 12 hours, 1 day, 2 days, 3 days, 4 days, 5 days by means of a feeding solution; [0291] iii) Adding at least one precursor and/or acceptor feed in a discontinuous (pulsed) manner to the culture medium over the course of 5 minutes, 10 minutes, 30 minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours, 4 hours, 10 hours, 12 hours, 1 day, 2 days, 3 days, 4 days, 5 days by means of a feeding solution and wherein preferably, the pH of the feeding solution is set between 3 and 7 and wherein preferably, the temperature of the feeding solution is kept between 20° C. and 80° C.; [0292] the method resulting in a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide with a concentration of at least 50 g/L, preferably at least 75 g/L, more preferably at least 90 g/L, more preferably at least 100 g/L, more preferably at least 125 g/L, more preferably at least 150 g/L, more preferably at least 175 g/L, more preferably at least 200 g/L in the final volume of the culture medium.

[0293] In a further, more preferred aspect, the method for the production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide as described herein comprises at least one of the following steps: [0294] i) Adding to the culture medium a lactose feed comprising at least 50, more preferably at least 75, more preferably at least 100, more preferably at least 120, more preferably at least 150 gram of lactose per litre of initial reactor volume wherein the total reactor volume ranges from 250 mL (millilitre) to 10,000 m.sup.3 (cubic meter), preferably in a continuous manner, and preferably so that the final volume of the culture medium is not more than three-fold, preferably not more than two-fold, more preferably less than 2-fold of the volume of the culture medium before the addition of the lactose feed; [0295] ii) Adding a lactose feed in a continuous manner to the culture medium over the course of 1 day, 2 days, 3 days, 4 days, 5 days by means of a feeding solution; [0296] iii) Adding a lactose feed in a continuous manner to the culture medium over the course of 1 day, 2 days, 3 days, 4 days, 5 days by means of a feeding solution and wherein the concentration of the lactose feeding solution is 50 g/L, preferably 75 g/L, more preferably 100 g/L, more preferably 125 g/L, more preferably 150 g/L, more preferably 175 g/L, more preferably 200 g/L, more preferably 225 g/L, more preferably 250 g/L, more preferably 275 g/L, more preferably 300 g/L, more preferably 325 g/L, more preferably 350 g/L, more preferably 375 g/L, more preferably, 400 g/L, more preferably 450 g/L, more preferably 500 g/L, even more preferably, 550 g/L, most preferably 600 g/L; and wherein preferably the pH of the solution is set between 3 and 7 and wherein preferably the temperature of the feed solution is kept between 20° C. and 80° C.; [0297] the method resulting in a sialylated oligosaccharide produced from the lactose with a concentration of at least 50 g/L, preferably at least 75 g/L, more preferably at least 90 g/L, more preferably at least 100 g/L, more preferably at least 125 g/L, more preferably at least 150 g/L, more preferably at least 175 g/L, more preferably at least 200 g/L in the final volume of the culture medium.

[0298] Preferably the lactose feed is accomplished by adding lactose from the beginning of the cultivating in a concentration of at least 5 mM, preferably in a concentration of 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 150 mM, more preferably in a concentration>300 mM.

[0299] In another aspect the lactose feed is accomplished by adding lactose to the cultivation medium in a concentration, such that throughout the production phase of the cultivation a lactose concentration of at least 5 mM, preferably 10 mM or 30 mM is obtained.

[0300] In a further embodiment of the methods described herein the host cells are cultivated for at least about 60, 80, 100, or about 120 hours or in a continuous manner.

[0301] In a preferred embodiment, a carbon source is provided, preferably sucrose, in the culture medium for 3 or more days, preferably up to 7 days; and/or provided, in the culture medium, at least 100, advantageously at least 105, more advantageously at least 110, even more advantageously at least 120 grams of sucrose per litre of initial culture volume in a continuous manner, so that the final volume of the culture medium is not more than three-fold, advantageously not more than two-fold, more advantageously less than two-fold of the volume of the culturing medium before the culturing.

[0302] Preferably, when performing the method as described herein, a first phase of exponential cell growth is provided by adding a carbon source, preferably glucose or sucrose, to the culture medium before the lactose is added to the culture medium in a second phase.

[0303] In an alternative preferable embodiment, in the method as described herein, the lactose is added already in the first phase of exponential growth together with the carbon-based substrate.

[0304] According to the disclosure, the methods as described herein preferably comprises a step of separating the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide from the cultivation.

[0305] The terms “separating from the cultivation” means harvesting, collecting, or retrieving the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide from the cell and/or the medium of its growth.

[0306] The sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide can be separated in a conventional manner from the aqueous culture medium, in which the cell was grown. In case the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide is still present in the cells producing the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide, conventional manners to free or to extract the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide out of the cells can be used, such as cell destruction using high pH, heat shock, sonication, French press, homogenization, enzymatic hydrolysis, chemical hydrolysis, solvent hydrolysis, detergent, hydrolysis, . . . . The culture medium and/or cell extract together and separately can then be further used for separating the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide.

[0307] This preferably involves clarifying the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide to remove suspended particulates and contaminants, particularly cells, cell components, insoluble metabolites and debris produced by culturing the genetically modified cell. In this step, the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide can be clarified in a conventional manner. Preferably, the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide is clarified by centrifugation, flocculation, decantation and/or filtration. A second step of separating the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide preferably involves removing substantially all the proteins, peptides, amino acids, RNA and DNA, and any endotoxins and glycolipids that could interfere with the subsequent separation step, from the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide, preferably after it has been clarified. In this step, proteins and related impurities can be removed from the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide in a conventional manner. Preferably, proteins, salts, by-products, color, endotoxins and other related impurities are removed from the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide by ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, two-phase partitioning, reverse osmosis, microfiltration, activated charcoal or carbon treatment, treatment with non-ionic surfactants, enzymatic digestion, tangential flow high-performance filtration, tangential flow ultrafiltration, electrophoresis (e.g., using slab-polyacrylamide or sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE)), affinity chromatography (using affinity ligands including e.g., DEAE-SEPHAROSE®, poly-L-lysine and polymyxin-B, endotoxin-selective adsorber matrices), ion exchange chromatography (such as but not limited to cation exchange, anion exchange, mixed bed ion exchange, inside-out ligand attachment), hydrophobic interaction chromatography and/or gel filtration (i.e., size exclusion chromatography), particularly by chromatography, more particularly by ion exchange chromatography or hydrophobic interaction chromatography or ligand exchange chromatography. With the exception of size exclusion chromatography, remaining proteins and related impurities are retained by a chromatography medium or a selected membrane.

[0308] In a further preferred embodiment, the methods as described herein also provide for a further purification of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide of disclosure. A further purification of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide may be accomplished, for example, by use of (activated) charcoal or carbon, nanofiltration, ultrafiltration, electrophoresis, enzymatic treatment or ion exchange to remove any remaining DNA, protein, LPS, endotoxins, or other impurity. Alcohols, such as ethanol, and aqueous alcohol mixtures can also be used. Another purification step is accomplished by crystallization, evaporation or precipitation of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide. Another purification step is to dry, e.g., spray dry, lyophilize, spray freeze dry, freeze spray dry, band dry, belt dry, vacuum band dry, vacuum belt dry, drum dry, roller dry, vacuum drum dry or vacuum roller dry the produced sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide.

[0309] In an exemplary embodiment, the separation and purification of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide is made in a process, comprising the following steps in any order: [0310] a) contacting the cultivation or a clarified version thereof with a nanofiltration membrane with a molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) of 600-3500 Da ensuring the retention of the produced sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide and allowing at least a part of the proteins, salts, by-products, color and other related impurities to pass, [0311] b) conducting a diafiltration process on the retentate from step a), using the membrane, with an aqueous solution of an inorganic electrolyte, followed by optional diafiltration with pure water to remove excess of the electrolyte, [0312] c) and collecting the retentate enriched in the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide in the form of a salt from the cation of the electrolyte.

[0313] In an alternative exemplary embodiment, the separation and purification of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide is made in a process, comprising the following steps in any order: subjecting the cultivation or a clarified version thereof to two membrane filtration steps using different membranes, wherein [0314] one membrane has a molecular weight cut-off of between about 300 Dalton to about 500 Dalton, and [0315] the other membrane as a molecular weight cut-off of between about 600 Dalton to about 800 Dalton.

[0316] In an alternative exemplary embodiment, the separation and purification of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide is made in a process, comprising the following steps in any order comprising the step of treating the cultivation or a clarified version thereof with a strong cation exchange resin in H+-form and a weak anion exchange resin in free base form.

[0317] In an alternative exemplary embodiment, the separation and purification of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide is made in the following way. The cultivation comprising the produced sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide, biomass, medium components and contaminants is applied to the following purification steps: [0318] i) separation of biomass from the cultivation, [0319] ii) cationic ion exchanger treatment for the removal of positively charged material, [0320] iii) anionic ion exchanger treatment for the removal of negatively charged material, [0321] iv) nanofiltration step and/or electrodialysis step, [0322] wherein a purified solution comprising the produced sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide at a purity of greater than or equal to 80 percent is provided. Optionally the purified solution is dried by any one or more drying steps chosen from the list comprising spray drying, lyophilization, spray freeze drying, freeze spray drying, band drying, belt drying, vacuum band drying, vacuum belt drying, drum drying, roller drying, vacuum drum drying and vacuum roller drying.

[0323] In an alternative exemplary embodiment, the separation and purification of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide is made in a process, comprising the following steps in any order: enzymatic treatment of the cultivation; removal of the biomass from the cultivation; ultrafiltration; nanofiltration; and a column chromatography step. Preferably such column chromatography is a single column or a multiple column. Further preferably the column chromatography step is simulated moving bed chromatography. Such simulated moving bed chromatography preferably comprises i) at least 4 columns, wherein at least one column comprises a weak or strong cation exchange resin; and/or ii) four zones I, II, II and IV with different flow rates; and/or iii) an eluent comprising water; and/or iv) an operating temperature of 15 degrees to 60 degrees centigrade.

[0324] In a specific embodiment, the disclosure provides the produced sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide, which is dried to powder by any one or more drying steps chosen from the list comprising spray drying, lyophilization, spray freeze drying, freeze spray drying, band drying, belt drying, vacuum band drying, vacuum belt drying, drum drying, roller drying, vacuum drum drying and vacuum roller drying, wherein the dried powder contains <15 percent-wt. of water, preferably <10 percent-wt. of water, more preferably <7 percent-wt. of water, most preferably <5 percent-wt. of water.

[0325] Another aspect of the disclosure provides the use of a cell as defined herein, in a method for the production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide. A further aspect of the disclosure provides the use of a method as defined herein for the production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide.

[0326] Furthermore, the disclosure also relates to the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide obtained by the methods according to the disclosure, as well as to the use of a polynucleotide, the vector, host cells or the polypeptide as described above for the production of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide. The sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide may be used as food additive, prebiotic, symbiotic, for the supplementation of baby food, adult food or feed, or as either therapeutically or pharmaceutically active compound or in cosmetic applications. With the novel methods, the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide can easily and effectively be provided, without the need for complicated, time and cost consuming synthetic processes.

[0327] For identification of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide produced in the cell as described herein, the monomeric building blocks (e.g., the monosaccharide or glycan unit composition), the anomeric configuration of side chains, the presence and location of substituent groups, degree of polymerization/molecular weight and the linkage pattern can be identified by standard methods known in the art, such as, e.g., methylation analysis, reductive cleavage, hydrolysis, GC-MS (gas chromatography-mass spectrometry), MALDI-MS (Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-mass spectrometry), ESI-MS (Electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry), HPLC (High-Performance Liquid chromatography with ultraviolet or refractive index detection), HPAEC-PAD (High-Performance Anion-Exchange chromatography with Pulsed Amperometric Detection), CE (capillary electrophoresis), IR (infrared)/Raman spectroscopy, and NMR (Nuclear magnetic resonance) spectroscopy techniques. The crystal structure can be solved using, e.g., solid-state NMR, FT-IR (Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy), and WAXS (wide-angle X-ray scattering). The degree of polymerization (DP), the DP distribution, and polydispersity can be determined by, e.g., viscosimetry and SEC (SEC-HPLC, high performance size-exclusion chromatography). To identify the monomeric components of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide methods such as e.g., acid-catalyzed hydrolysis, HPLC (high performance liquid chromatography) or GLC (gas-liquid chromatography) (after conversion to alditol acetates) may be used. To determine the glycosidic linkages, the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide is methylated with methyl iodide and strong base in DMSO, hydrolysis is performed, a reduction to partially methylated alditols is achieved, an acetylation to methylated alditol acetates is performed, and the analysis is carried out by GLC/MS (gas-liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry). To determine the glycan sequence, a partial depolymerization is carried out using an acid or enzymes to determine the structures. To identify the anomeric configuration, the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide is subjected to enzymatic analysis, e.g., it is contacted with an enzyme that is specific for a particular type of linkage, e.g., beta-galactosidase, or alpha-glucosidase, etc., and NMR may be used to analyze the products.

[0328] The separated and preferably also purified sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide as described herein is incorporated into a food (e.g., human food or feed), dietary supplement, pharmaceutical ingredient, cosmetic ingredient or medicine. In some embodiments, the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide is mixed with one or more ingredients suitable for food, feed, dietary supplement, pharmaceutical ingredient, cosmetic ingredient or medicine.

[0329] In some embodiments, the dietary supplement comprises at least one prebiotic ingredient and/or at least one probiotic ingredient.

[0330] A “prebiotic” is a substance that promotes growth of microorganisms beneficial to the host, particularly microorganisms in the gastrointestinal tract. In some embodiments, a dietary supplement provides multiple prebiotics, including the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide being a prebiotic produced and/or purified by a process disclosed in this specification, to promote growth of one or more beneficial microorganisms. Examples of prebiotic ingredients for dietary supplements include other prebiotic molecules (such as HMOs) and plant polysaccharides (such as inulin, pectin, b-glucan and xylooligosaccharide). A “probiotic” product typically contains live microorganisms that replace or add to gastrointestinal microflora, to the benefit of the recipient. Examples of such microorganisms include Lactobacillus species (for example, L. acidophilus and L. bulgaricus), Bifidobacterium species (for example, B. animalis, B. longum and B. infantis (e.g., Bi-26)), and Saccharomyces boulardii. In some embodiments, a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide produced and/or purified by a process of this specification is orally administered in combination with such microorganism.

[0331] Examples of further ingredients for dietary supplements include oligosaccharides (such as 2′-fucosyllactose, 3-fucosyllactose, 3′-sialyllactose, 6′-sialyllactose), disaccharides (such as lactose), monosaccharides (such as glucose, galactose, L-fucose, sialic acid, glucosamine and N-acetylglucosamine), thickeners (such as gum arabic), acidity regulators (such as trisodium citrate), water, skimmed milk, and flavorings.

[0332] In some embodiments, the sialylated oligosaccharide is incorporated into a human baby food (e.g., infant formula). Infant formula is generally a manufactured food for feeding to infants as a complete or partial substitute for human breast milk. In some embodiments, infant formula is sold as a powder and prepared for bottle- or cup-feeding to an infant by mixing with water. The composition of infant formula is typically designed to be roughly mimic human breast milk. In some embodiments, a sialylated oligosaccharide produced and/or purified by a process in this specification is included in infant formula to provide nutritional benefits similar to those provided by the oligosaccharides in human breast milk. In some embodiments, the sialylated oligosaccharide is mixed with one or more ingredients of the infant formula. Examples of infant formula ingredients include non-fat milk, carbohydrate sources (e.g., lactose), protein sources (e.g., whey protein concentrate and casein), fat sources (e.g., vegetable oils—such as palm, high oleic safflower oil, rapeseed, coconut and/or sunflower oil; and fish oils), vitamins (such as vitamins A, B6, B12, C and D), minerals (such as potassium citrate, calcium citrate, magnesium chloride, sodium chloride, sodium citrate and calcium phosphate) and possibly human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs). Such HMOs may include, for example, DiFL, lacto-N-triose II, LNT, LNnT, lacto-N-fucopentaose I, lacto-N-neofucopentaose, lacto-N-fucopentaose II, lacto-N-fucopentaose III, lacto-N-fucopentaose V, lacto-N-neofucopentaose V, lacto-N-difucohexaose I, lacto-N-difucohexaose II, 6′-galactosyllactose, 3′-galactosyllactose, lacto-N-hexaose and lacto-N-neohexaose.

[0333] In some embodiments, the one or more infant formula ingredients comprise non-fat milk, a carbohydrate source, a protein source, a fat source, and/or a vitamin and mineral.

[0334] In some embodiments, the one or more infant formula ingredients comprise lactose, whey protein concentrate and/or high oleic safflower oil.

[0335] In some embodiments, the concentration of the sialylated oligosaccharide in the infant formula is approximately the same concentration as the concentration of the sialylated oligosaccharide generally present in human breast milk.

[0336] In some embodiments, the sialylated oligosaccharide is incorporated into a feed preparation, wherein the feed is chosen from the list comprising pet food, animal milk replacer, veterinary product, post weaning feed, or creep feed.

[0337] As will be shown in the examples herein, the method and the cell of the disclosure preferably provide at least one of the following surprising advantages: [0338] Higher titers of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide (g/L), [0339] Higher production rate r (g sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide/L/h), [0340] Higher cell performance index CPI (g sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide/g X), [0341] Higher specific productivity Qp (g sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide/g X/h), [0342] Higher yield on sucrose Ys (g sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide/g sucrose), [0343] Higher sucrose uptake/conversion rate Qs (g sucrose/g X/h), [0344] Higher lactose conversion/consumption rate rs (g lactose/h), [0345] Higher secretion of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide, and/or [0346] Higher growth speed of the production host, [0347] when compared to a host for production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide lacking expression and/or overexpression of multiple coding DNA sequences encoding one or more proteins that catalyze the same chemical reaction.

[0348] Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein generally have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this disclosure belongs. Generally, the nomenclature used herein and the laboratory procedures in cell culture, molecular genetics, organic chemistry and nucleic acid chemistry and hybridization described above and below are those well-known and commonly employed in the art. Standard techniques are used for nucleic acid and peptide synthesis. Generally, purification steps are performed according to the manufacturer's specifications.

[0349] Further advantages follow from the specific embodiments and the examples. It goes without saying that the abovementioned features and the features that are still to be explained below can be used not only in the respectively specified combinations, but also in other combinations or on their own, without departing from the scope of the disclosure.

[0350] Moreover, the disclosure relates to the following specific embodiments:

[0351] 1. A metabolically engineered cell for production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide, the cell comprising a pathway for production of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide, characterized in that the cell is modified for expression and/or overexpression of multiple coding DNA sequences encoding one or more proteins that catalyze the same chemical reaction.

[0352] 2. Cell according to embodiment 1, wherein the protein is involved in the pathway for production of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide.

[0353] 3. Cell according to any one of embodiment 1 or 2, wherein the pathway for production of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide comprises a sialylation pathway.

[0354] 4. Cell according to embodiment 3, wherein the sialylation pathway comprises at least one protein chosen from the list comprising N-acylglucosamine 2-epimerase, UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase, N-acetylmannosamine-6-phosphate 2-epimerase, UDP-GlcNAc 2-epimerase/kinase hydrolyzing, N-aceylneuraminate-9-phosphate synthetase, phosphatase, N-acetylneuraminate synthase, N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase, sialyltransferase and sialic acid transporter,

[0355] preferably, wherein at least one of the proteins is encoded by the multiple coding DNA sequences.

[0356] 5. Cell according to any one of the previous embodiments, wherein the multiple coding DNA sequences comprise any one or more of [0357] multiple copies of the same coding DNA sequence encoding for one protein, [0358] multiple coding DNA sequences encoding for one protein, and [0359] multiple coding DNA sequences encoding for multiple isoproteins that catalyze the same chemical reaction.

[0360] 6. Cell according to any one of the previous embodiments, wherein multiple is at least 2, preferably at least 3, more preferably at least 5.

[0361] 7. Cell according to any one of the previous embodiments, wherein the coding DNA sequences are presented to the cell in one or more gene expression modules wherein expression is regulated by one or more regulatory sequences.

[0362] 8. Cell according to embodiment 7, wherein the expression modules are integrated in the host cell's genome and/or presented to the cell on a vector comprising plasmid, cosmid, phage, liposome or virus, which is to be stably transformed into the host cell.

[0363] 9. Cell according to any one of the previous embodiments, wherein the protein is involved in the synthesis of a nucleotide-activated sugar, wherein the nucleotide-activated sugar is to be used in the production of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide.

[0364] 10. Cell according to embodiment 9, wherein the nucleotide-activated sugar is chosen from the list comprising UDP-N-acetylglucosamine (UDP-GlcNAc), UDP-N-acetylgalactosamine (UDP-GalNAc), UDP-N-acetylmannosamine (UDP-ManNAc), UDP-glucose (UDP-Glc), UDP-galactose (UDP-Gal), GDP-mannose (GDP-Man), UDP-glucuronate, UDP-galacturonate, UDP-2-acetamido-2,6-dideoxy-L-arabino-4-hexulose, UDP-2-acetamido-2,6-dideoxy--L-lyxo-4-hexulose, UDP-N-acetyl-L-rhamnosamine (UDP-L-RhaNAc or UDP-2-acetamido-2,6-dideoxy-L-mannose), dTDP-N-acetylfucosamine, UDP-N-acetylfucosamine (UDP-L-FucNAc or UDP-2-acetamido-2,6-dideoxy-L-galactose), UDP-N-acetyl-L-pneumosamine (UDP-L-PneNAC or UDP-2-acetamido-2,6-dideoxy-L-talose), UDP-N-acetylmuramic acid, UDP-N-acetyl-L-quinovosamine (UDP-L-QuiNAc or UDP-2-acetamido-2,6-dideoxy-L-glucose), CMP-sialic acid (CMP-Neu5Ac), CMP-Neu4Ac, CMP-Neu5Ac9N3, CMP-Neu4,5Ac2, CMP-Neu5,7Ac2, CMP-Neu5,9Ac2, CMP-Neu5,7(8,9)Ac2, CMP-N-glycolylneuraminic acid (CMP-Neu5Gc), GDP-fucose (GDP-Fuc), GDP-rhamnose and UDP-xylose, [0365] preferably the nucleotide-activated sugar is chosen from the list comprising UDP-N-acetylglucosamine (UDP-GlcNAc), UDP-N-acetylmannosamine (UDP-ManNAc), CMP-sialic acid (CMP-Neu5Ac), CMP-Neu4Ac, CMP-Neu5Ac9N3, CMP-Neu4,5Ac2, CMP-Neu5,7Ac2, CMP-Neu5,9Ac2, CMP-Neu5,7(8,9)Ac2 and CMP-N-glycolylneuraminic acid (CMP-Neu5Gc).

[0366] 11. Cell according to any one of embodiment 9 or 10, wherein the protein involved in the synthesis of a nucleotide-activated sugar is chosen from the list comprising mannose-6-phosphate isomerase, phosphomannomutase, mannose-1-phosphate guanylyltransferase, GDP-mannose 4,6-dehydratase, GDP-L-fucose synthase, L-fucokinase/GDP-fucose pyrophosphorylase, L-glutamine-D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase, glucosamine-6-phosphate deaminase, phosphoglucosamine mutase, N-acetylglucosamine-6-phosphate deacetylase, N-acetylglucosamine epimerase, UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase, N-acetylglucosamine-6P 2-epimerase, glucosamine 6-phosphate N-acetyltransferase, N-acetylglucosamine-6-phosphate phosphatase, N-acetylmannosamine-6-phosphate phosphatase, N-acetylmannosamine kinase, N-acetylmannosamine-6-phosphate 2-epimerase, phosphoacetylglucosamine mutase, N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate uridyltransferase, glucosamine-1-phosphate acetyltransferase, sialic acid synthase, N-acetylneuraminate lyase, N-acylneuraminate-9-phosphate synthase, N-acylneuraminate-9-phosphate phosphatase, CMP-sialic acid synthetase, galactose-1-epimerase, galactokinase, glucokinase, galactose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase, UDP-glucose 4-epimerase, glucose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase, glucophosphomutase, N-acetylglucosamine 1-phosphate uridylyltransferase, UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 4-epimerase, UDP-galactose 4-epimerase, N-acetylgalactosamine kinase, UDP-GalNAc pyrophosphorylase, mannose-1-phosphate guanyltransferase, UDP-GlcNAc 2-epimerase and ManNAc kinase.

[0367] 12. Cell according to any one of the previous embodiments, wherein the cell further expresses at least one glycosyltransferase chosen from the list comprising fucosyltransferases, sialyltransferases, galactosyltransferases, glucosyltransferases, mannosyltransferases, N-acetylglucosaminyltransferases, N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferases, N-acetylmannosaminyltransferases, xylosyltransferases, glucuronyltransferases, galacturonyltransferases, glucosaminyltransferases, N-glycolylneuraminyltransferases, rhamnosyltransferases, N-acetylrhamnosyltransferases, UDP-4-amino-4,6-dideoxy-N-acetyl-beta-L-altrosamine transaminases, UDP-N-acetylglucosamine enolpyruvyl transferases and fucosaminyltransferases, [0368] preferably, wherein the cell is modified in the expression or activity of at least one of the glycosyltransferases, [0369] preferably, the fucosyltransferase is chosen from the list comprising alpha-1,2-fucosyltransferase, alpha-1,3-fucosyltransferase, alpha-1,4-fucosyltransferase and alpha-1,6-fucosyltransferase, [0370] preferably, the sialyltransferase is chosen from the list comprising alpha-2,3-sialyltransferase, alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase, and alpha-2,8-sialyltransferase, [0371] preferably, the galactosyltransferase is chosen from the list comprising beta-1,3-galactosyltransferase, N-acetylglucosamine beta-1,3-galactosyltransferase, beta-1,4-galactosyltransferase, N-acetylglucosamine beta-1,4-galactosyltransferase, alpha-1,3-galactosyltransferase and alpha-1,4-galactosyltransferase, [0372] preferably, the glucosyltransferase is chosen from the list comprising alpha-glucosyltransferase, beta-1,2-glucosyltransferase, beta-1,3-glucosyltransferase and beta-1,4-glucosyltransferase, [0373] preferably, the mannosyltransferase is chosen from the list comprising alpha-1,2-mannosyltransferase, alpha-1,3-mannosyltransferase and alpha-1,6-mannosyltransferase, [0374] preferably, the N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase is chosen from the list comprising galactoside beta-1,3-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase and beta-1,6-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase, [0375] preferably, the N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase is chosen from the list comprising alpha-1,3-N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase.

[0376] 13. Cell according to any one of the previous embodiments, wherein the protein is a membrane transporter protein that is chosen from the list comprising a siderophore exporter, an ABC transporter, an MFS transporter and Sugar Efflux Transporter.

[0377] 14. Cell according to any one of the previous embodiments, wherein the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide is chosen from the list comprising a milk oligosaccharide, O-antigen, enterobacterial common antigen (ECA), the oligosaccharide repeats present in capsular polysaccharides, peptidoglycan, amino-sugars and Lewis-type antigen oligosaccharides, preferably the milk oligosaccharide is a mammalian milk oligosaccharide, more preferably the milk oligosaccharide is a human milk oligosaccharide.

[0378] 15. Cell according to any one of the previous embodiments, wherein the cell comprises a fucosylation pathway comprising at least one protein chosen from the list comprising mannose-6-phosphate isomerase, phosphomannomutase, mannose-1-phosphate guanylyltransferase, GDP-mannose 4,6-dehydratase, GDP-L-fucose synthase, fucose permease, fucose kinase, fucose-1-phosphate guanylyltransferase, fucosyltransferase, [0379] preferably, wherein at least one of the proteins is encoded by the multiple coding DNA sequences encoding one or more enzymes that catalyze the same chemical reaction, wherein multiple is preferably two, more preferably three or more.

[0380] 16. Cell according to any one of the previous embodiments, wherein the cell comprises a galactosylation pathway comprising at least one protein chosen from the list comprising galactose-1-epimerase, galactokinase, glucokinase, galactose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase, UDP-glucose 4-epimerase, glucose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase, glucophosphomutase, galactosyltransferase, [0381] preferably, wherein at least one of the proteins is encoded by the multiple coding DNA sequences encoding one or more enzymes that catalyze the same chemical reaction, wherein multiple is preferably two, more preferably three or more.

[0382] 17. Cell according to any one of the previous embodiments, wherein the cell comprises an N-acetylglucosaminylation pathway comprising at least one protein chosen from the list comprising L-glutamine-D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase, N-acetylglucosamine-6-phosphate deacetylase, phosphoglucosamine mutase, N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase/glucosamine-1-phosphate acetyltransferase, N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase, preferably, wherein at least one of the proteins is encoded by the multiple coding DNA sequences encoding one or more enzymes that catalyze the same chemical reaction, wherein multiple is preferably two, more preferably three or more.

[0383] 18. Cell according to any one of the previous embodiments, wherein the cell is modified for enhanced synthesis and/or supply of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP).

[0384] 19. Cell according to any one of the previous embodiments, wherein the cell comprises: [0385] at least one coding DNA sequence encoding a protein chosen from the list comprising i) the enzyme from Neisseria meningitidis (NmNeuB) with SEQ ID NO:01 and having N-acetylneuraminate synthase activity, ii) a functional homolog or functional fragment of the enzyme with SEQ ID NO:01, and iii) a polypeptide sequence having at least 80% sequence identity to the full-length sequence of the enzyme with SEQ ID NO:01 and having N-acetylneuraminate synthase activity, [0386] two or more coding DNA sequences encoding a protein chosen from the list comprising i) the enzyme from Campylobacter jejuni (CjNeuA) with SEQ ID NO:02, Helicobacter influenzae (HiNeuA) with SEQ ID NO:03 and Pasteurella multocida (PmultNeuA) with SEQ ID NO:04, wherein the enzymes with SEQ ID NOs:02, 03 and 04 have N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase activity, ii) a functional homolog or functional fragment of any one of the enzymes with SEQ ID NOs:02, 03 or 04, and iii) a polypeptide sequence having at least 80% sequence identity to the full-length sequence of any one of the enzymes with SEQ ID NO:02, 03 or 04, respectively, and having N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase activity, and [0387] two or more copies of one or more coding DNA sequences of an alpha-2,3-sialyltransferase, an alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase, and/or an alpha-2,8-sialyltransferase.

[0388] 20. Cell according to any one of the previous embodiments, wherein the cell comprises: [0389] two or more copies of a coding DNA sequence encoding an enzyme having L-glutamine-D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase activity and preferably chosen from the list comprising i) the enzyme from Escherichia coli (glmS*54) with SEQ ID NO:05 and ii) a functional homolog or functional fragment of the enzyme with SEQ ID NO:05, and iii) a polypeptide sequence having at least 80% sequence identity to the full-length sequence of the enzyme with SEQ ID NO:05 and having L-glutamine D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase activity, and/or [0390] two or more copies of a coding DNA sequence encoding an enzyme having glucosamine 6-phosphate N-acetyltransferase activity, preferably chosen from the list comprising i) the enzyme from Saccharomyces cerevisiae (GNA1) with SEQ ID NO:06, ii) a functional homolog or functional fragment of the enzyme with SEQ ID NO:06, and iii) a polypeptide sequence having at least 80% sequence identity to the full-length sequence of the enzyme with SEQ ID NO:06 and having glucosamine 6-phosphate N-acetyltransferase activity.

[0391] 21. Cell according to any one of the previous embodiments, wherein the cell comprises a modification for reduced production of acetate.

[0392] 22. Cell according to any one of the previous embodiments, wherein the cell further comprises a lower or reduced expression and/or abolished, impaired, reduced or delayed activity of any one or more of the proteins comprising beta-galactosidase, galactoside O-acetyltransferase, N-acetylglucosamine-6-phosphate deacetylase, glucosamine-6-phosphate deaminase, N-acetylglucosamine repressor, ribonucleotide monophosphatase, EIICBA-Nag, UDP-glucose undecaprenyl-phosphate glucose-1-phosphatetransferase, L-fuculokinase, L-fucose isomerase, N-acetylneuraminate lyase, N-acetylmannosamine kinase, N-acetylmannosamine-6-phosphate 2-epimerase, EIIAB-Man, EIIC-Man, EIID-Man, ushA, galactose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase, glucose-1-phosphate adenylyltransferase, glucose-1-phosphatase, ATP-dependent 6-phosphofructokinase isozyme 1, ATP-dependent 6-phosphofructokinase isozyme 2, glucose-6-phosphate isomerase, aerobic respiration control protein, transcriptional repressor IclR, lon protease, glucose-specific translocating phosphotransferase enzyme IIBC component ptsG, glucose-specific translocating phosphotransferase (PTS) enzyme IIBC component malX, enzyme IIA.sup.Glc, beta-glucoside specific PTS enzyme II, fructose-specific PTS multiphosphoryl transfer protein FruA and FruB, ethanol dehydrogenase aldehyde dehydrogenase, pyruvate-formate lyase, acetate kinase, phosphoacyltransferase, phosphate acetyltransferase, pyruvate decarboxylase.

[0393] 23. Cell according to any one of the previous embodiments, wherein the cell comprises a catabolic pathway for selected mono-, di- or oligosaccharides, which is at least partially inactivated, the mono-, di-, or oligosaccharides being involved in and/or required for the synthesis of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide.

[0394] 24. Cell according to any one of the previous embodiments, wherein the cell is using a precursor for the synthesis of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide the precursor being fed to the cell from the cultivation medium.

[0395] 25. Cell according to any one of the previous embodiments, wherein the cell is producing a precursor for the synthesis of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide.

[0396] 26. Cell according to any one of the previous embodiments, wherein the cell produces 90 g/L or more of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide in the whole broth and/or supernatant and/or wherein the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide in the whole broth and/or supernatant has a purity of at least 80% measured on the total amount of sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide and its precursor produced by the cell in the whole broth and/or supernatant, respectively.

[0397] 27. Cell according to any one of the previous embodiments, wherein the cell is a bacterium, fungus, yeast, a plant cell, an animal cell, or a protozoan cell, [0398] preferably the bacterium is of an Escherichia coli strain, more preferably of an Escherichia coli strain, which is a K-12 strain, even more preferably the Escherichia coli K-12 strain is E. coli MG1655, [0399] preferably the fungus belongs to a genus chosen from the group comprising Rhizopus, Dictyostelium, Penicillium, Mucor or Aspergillus, [0400] preferably the yeast belongs to a genus chosen from the group comprising Saccharomyces, Zygosaccharomyces, Pichia, Komagataella, Hansenula, Yarrowia, Starmerella, Kluyveromyces or Debaromyces, [0401] preferably the plant cell is an algal cell or is derived from tobacco, alfalfa, rice, tomato, cotton, rapeseed, soy, maize, or corn plant, [0402] preferably the animal cell is derived from non-human mammals, birds, fish, invertebrates, reptiles, amphibians or insects or is a genetically modified cell line derived from human cells excluding embryonic stem cells, more preferably the human and non-human mammalian cell is an epithelial cell, an embryonic kidney cell, a fibroblast cell, a COS cell, a Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell, a murine myeloma cell, an NIH-3T3 cell, a non-mammary adult stem cell or derivatives thereof, more preferably the insect cell is derived from Spodoptera frugiperda, Bombyx mori, Mamestra brassicae, Trichoplusia ni or Drosophila melanogaster, [0403] preferably the protozoan cell is a Leishmania tarentolae cell.

[0404] 28. Cell according to embodiment 27, wherein the cell is a viable Gram-negative bacterium that comprises a reduced or abolished synthesis of poly-N-acetyl-glucosamine (PNAG), Enterobacterial Common Antigen (ECA), cellulose, colanic acid, core oligosaccharides, Osmoregulated Periplasmic Glucans (OPG), Glucosylglycerol, glycan, and/or trehalose compared to a non-modified progenitor.

[0405] 29. Cell according to any one of the previous embodiments, wherein the cell is stably cultured in a medium.

[0406] 30. Cell according to any one of the previous embodiments, wherein the cell is capable to synthesize a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising at least one sialylated oligosaccharide.

[0407] 31. Cell according to any one of the previous embodiments, wherein the cell is capable to synthesize a mixture of di- and oligosaccharides comprising at least one sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide.

[0408] 32. Method to produce a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide by a cell, the method comprising the steps of: [0409] i) providing a cell according to any one of embodiments 1 to 31, and [0410] ii) cultivating the cell under conditions permissive to produce the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide, [0411] iii) preferably, separating the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide from the cultivation.

[0412] 33. Method according to embodiment 32, the method further comprising at least one of the following steps: [0413] i) Adding to the culture medium in a reactor at least one precursor and/or acceptor feed wherein the total reactor volume ranges from 250 mL (milliliter) to 10,000 m.sup.3 (cubic meter), preferably in a continuous manner, and preferably so that the final volume of the culture medium is not more than three-fold, preferably not more than two-fold, more preferably less than 2-fold of the volume of the culture medium before the addition of the precursor and/or acceptor feed; [0414] ii) Adding at least one precursor and/or acceptor feed in a continuous manner to the culture medium over the course of 1 day, 2 days, 3 days, 4 days, 5 days by means of a feeding solution; [0415] iii) Adding at least one precursor and/or acceptor feed in a continuous manner to the culture medium over the course of 1 day, 2 days, 3 days, 4 days, 5 days by means of a feeding solution and wherein preferably, the pH of the feeding solution is set between 3 and 7 and wherein preferably, the temperature of the feeding solution is kept between 20° C. and 80° C.; [0416] the method resulting in a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide with a concentration of at least 50 g/L, preferably at least 75 g/L, more preferably at least 90 g/L, more preferably at least 100 g/L, more preferably at least 125 g/L, more preferably at least 150 g/L, more preferably at least 175 g/L, more preferably at least 200 g/L in the final volume of the culture medium.

[0417] 34. Method according to embodiment 32, the method further comprising at least one of the following steps: [0418] i) adding to the culture medium a lactose feed comprising at least 50, more preferably at least 75, more preferably at least 100, more preferably at least 120, more preferably at least 150 gram of lactose per liter of initial reactor volume wherein the reactor volume ranges from 250 mL to 10,000 m.sup.3 (cubic meter), preferably in a continuous manner, and preferably so that the final volume of the culture medium is not more than three-fold, preferably not more than two-fold, more preferably less than 2-fold of the volume of the culture medium before the addition of the lactose feed; [0419] ii) adding a lactose feed in a continuous manner to the culture medium over the course of 1 day, 2 days, 3 days, 4 days, 5 days by means of a feeding solution; [0420] iii) adding a lactose feed in a continuous manner to the culture medium over the course of 1 day, 2 days, 3 days, 4 days, 5 days by means of a feeding solution and wherein the concentration of the lactose feeding solution is 50 g/L, preferably 75 g/L, more preferably 100 g/L, more preferably 125 g/L, more preferably 150 g/L, more preferably 175 g/L, more preferably 200 g/L, more preferably 225 g/L, more preferably 250 g/L, more preferably 275 g/L, more preferably 300 g/L, more preferably 325 g/L, more preferably 350 g/L, more preferably 375 g/L, more preferably, 400 g/L, more preferably 450 g/L, more preferably 500 g/L, even more preferably, 550 g/L, most preferably 600 g/L; and wherein preferably the pH of the solution is set between 3 and 7 and wherein preferably the temperature of the feed solution is kept between 20° C. and 80° C.; [0421] the method resulting in a sialylated oligosaccharide produced from the lactose with a concentration of at least 50 g/L, preferably at least 75 g/L, more preferably at least 90 g/L, more preferably at least 100 g/L, more preferably at least 125 g/L, more preferably at least 150 g/L, more preferably at least 175 g/L, more preferably at least 200 g/L in the final volume of the culture medium.

[0422] 35. Method according to embodiment 34, wherein the lactose feed is accomplished by adding lactose from the beginning of the cultivating in a concentration of at least 5 mM, preferably in a concentration of 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 150 mM, more preferably in a concentration>300 mM.

[0423] 36. Method according to any one of embodiment 34 or 35, wherein the lactose feed is accomplished by adding lactose to the cultivation medium in a concentration, such, that throughout the production phase of the cultivation a lactose concentration of at least 5 mM, preferably 10 mM or 30 mM is obtained.

[0424] 37. Method according to any one of embodiment 32 to 36, wherein the host cells are cultivated for at least about 60, 80, 100, or about 120 hours or in a continuous manner.

[0425] 38. Method according to any one of embodiment 32 to 37, wherein the cell is cultivated in culture medium comprising a carbon source comprising a monosaccharide, disaccharide, oligosaccharide, polysaccharide, polyol, glycerol, a complex medium including molasses, corn steep liquor, peptone, tryptone or yeast extract; preferably, wherein the carbon source is chosen from the list comprising glucose, glycerol, fructose, sucrose, maltose, lactose, arabinose, malto-oligosaccharides, maltotriose, sorbitol, xylose, rhamnose, galactose, mannose, methanol, ethanol, trehalose, starch, cellulose, hemi-cellulose, molasses, corn-steep liquor, high-fructose syrup, acetate, citrate, lactate and pyruvate.

[0426] 39. Method according to any one of embodiment 32 to 38, wherein the cell uses at least one precursor for the synthesis of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide, preferably the cell uses two or more precursors for the synthesis of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide.

[0427] 40. Method according to any one of embodiment 32 to 39, wherein the culture medium contains at least one compound selected from the group comprising lactose, galactose, sialic acid, fucose, GlcNAc, GalNAc, lacto-N-biose (LNB), N-acetyllactosamine (LacNAc).

[0428] 41. Method according to any one of embodiment 32 to 40, wherein a first phase of exponential cell growth is provided by adding a carbon-based substrate, preferably glucose or sucrose, to the culture medium before the lactose is added to the culture medium in a second phase.

[0429] 42. Method according to any one of embodiment 32 to 41, wherein the cell is producing at least one precursor for the synthesis of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide.

[0430] 43. Method according to any one of embodiment 32 to 42, wherein the precursor for the synthesis of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide is completely converted into the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide.

[0431] 44. Method according to any one of embodiment 32 to 43, wherein the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide is separated from the culture medium and/or the cell.

[0432] 45. Method according to any one of embodiment 32 to 44, wherein the separation comprises at least one of the following steps: clarification, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, two-phase partitioning, reverse osmosis, microfiltration, activated charcoal or carbon treatment, treatment with non-ionic surfactants, enzymatic digestion, tangential flow high-performance filtration, tangential flow ultrafiltration, electrophoresis, affinity chromatography, ion exchange chromatography, hydrophobic interaction chromatography and/or gel filtration, ligand exchange chromatography.

[0433] 46. Method according to any one of embodiment 32 to 45, wherein the method further comprises purification of the sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide.

[0434] 47. Method according to embodiment 46, wherein the purification comprises at least one of the following steps: use of activated charcoal or carbon, use of charcoal, nanofiltration, ultrafiltration, electrophoresis, enzymatic treatment or ion exchange, use of alcohols, use of aqueous alcohol mixtures, crystallization, evaporation, precipitation, drying, spray drying, lyophilization, spray freeze drying, freeze spray drying, band drying, belt drying, vacuum band drying, vacuum belt drying, drum drying, roller drying, vacuum drum drying or vacuum roller drying.

[0435] 48. Use of a cell according to any one of embodiment 1 to 29 for production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide.

[0436] 49. Use of a cell according to embodiment 30 for production of a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising at least one sialylated oligosaccharide.

[0437] 50. Use of a cell according to embodiment 31 for production of a mixture of di- and oligosaccharides comprising at least one sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide.

[0438] 51. Use of a method according to any one of embodiment 32 to 47 for production of a sialylated di- and/or oligosaccharide.

[0439] The disclosure will be described in more detail in the examples. The following examples will serve as further illustration and clarification of the disclosure and are not intended to be limiting.

EXAMPLES

Example 1. Calculation of Percentage Identity Between Polypeptide Sequences

[0440] Methods for the alignment of sequences for comparison are well known in the art, such methods include GAP, BESTFIT, BLAST, FASTA and TFASTA. GAP uses the algorithm of Needleman and Wunsch (J. Mol. Biol. (1970) 48: 443-453) to find the global (i.e., spanning the full-length sequences) alignment of two sequences that maximizes the number of matches and minimizes the number of gaps. The BLAST algorithm (Altschul et al., J. Mol. Biol. (1990) 215: 403-10) calculates the global percentage sequence identity (i.e., over the full-length sequence) and performs a statistical analysis of the similarity between the two sequences. The software for performing BLAST analysis is publicly available through the National Centre for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Homologs may readily be identified using, for example, the ClustalW multiple sequence alignment algorithm (version 1.83), with the default pairwise alignment parameters, and a scoring method in percentage. Global percentages of similarity and identity ((i.e., spanning the full-length sequences) may also be determined using one of the methods available in the MatGAT software package (Campanella et al., BMC Bioinformatics (2003) 4:29). Minor manual editing may be performed to optimize alignment between conserved motifs, as would be apparent to a person skilled in the art. Furthermore, instead of using full-length sequences for the identification of homologs, specific domains may also be used, to determine the so-called local sequence identity. The sequence identity values may be determined over the entire nucleic acid or amino acid sequence (=local sequence identity search over the full-length sequence resulting in a global sequence identity score) or over selected domains or conserved motif(s) (=local sequence identity search over a partial sequence resulting in a local sequence identity score), using the programs mentioned above using the default parameters. For local alignments, the Smith-Waterman algorithm is particularly useful (Smith T F, Waterman M S (1981) J. Mol. Biol 147(1); 195-7).

Example 2. Materials and Methods Escherichia coli

[0441] Media

[0442] The Luria Broth (LB) medium consisted of 1% tryptone peptone (Difco, Erembodegem, Belgium), 0.5% yeast extract (Difco) and 0.5% sodium chloride (VWR, Leuven, Belgium). The minimal medium used in the cultivation experiments in 96-well plates or in shake flasks contained 2.00 g/L NH.sub.4Cl, 5.00 g/L (NH.sub.4).sub.2SO.sub.4, 2.993 g/L KH.sub.2PO.sub.4, 7.315 g/L K.sub.2HPO.sub.4, 8.372 g/L MOPS, 0.5 g/L NaCl, 0.5 g/L MgSO.sub.4.Math.7H.sub.2O, 30 g/L sucrose or 30 g/L glycerol, 1 ml/L vitamin solution, 100 μl/L molybdate solution, and 1 mL/L selenium solution. As specified in the respective examples, 0.30 g/L sialic acid, 20 g/L lactose, 20 g/L LacNAc and/or 20 g/L LNB were additionally added to the medium as precursor(s). The minimal medium was set to a pH of 7 with 1M KOH. Vitamin solution consisted of 3.6 g/L FeCl.sub.2.Math.4H.sub.2O, 5 g/L CaCl.sub.2).Math.2H.sub.2O, 1.3 g/L MnCl.sub.2.Math.2H.sub.2O, 0.38 g/L CuCl.sub.2.Math.2H.sub.2O, 0.5 g/L COCl.sub.2.Math.6H.sub.2O, 0.94 g/L ZnCl.sub.2, 0.0311 g/L H.sub.3BO.sub.4, 0.4 g/L Na.sub.2EDTA.Math.2H.sub.2O and 1.01 g/L thiamine.Math.HCl. The molybdate solution contained 0.967 g/L NaMoO.sub.4.Math.2H.sub.2O. The selenium solution contained 42 g/L SeO.sub.2.

[0443] The minimal medium for fermentations contained 6.75 g/L NH.sub.4Cl, 1.25 g/L (NH.sub.4).sub.2SO.sub.4, 2.93 g/L KH.sub.2PO.sub.4 and 7.31 g/L KH.sub.2PO.sub.4, 0.5 g/L NaCl, 0.5 g/L MgSO.sub.4.Math.7H.sub.2O, 30 g/L sucrose or 30 g/L glycerol, 1 mL/L vitamin solution, 100 μL/L molybdate solution, and 1 mL/L selenium solution with the same composition as described above. As specified in the respective examples, 0.30 g/L sialic acid, 20 g/L lactose, 20 g/L LacNAc and/or 20 g/L LNB were additionally added to the medium as precursor(s).

[0444] Complex medium was sterilized by autoclaving (121° C., 21 min) and minimal medium by filtration (0.22 μm Sartorius). When necessary, the medium was made selective by adding an antibiotic: e.g., chloramphenicol (20 mg/L), carbenicillin (100 mg/L), spectinomycin (40 mg/L) and/or kanamycin (50 mg/L).

[0445] Plasmids

[0446] pKD46 (Red helper plasmid, Ampicillin resistance), pKD3 (contains an FRT-flanked chloramphenicol resistance (cat) gene), pKD4 (contains an FRT-flanked kanamycin resistance (kan) gene), and pCP20 (expresses FLP recombinase activity) plasmids were obtained from Prof. R. Cunin (Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium in 2007). Plasmids were maintained in the host E. coli DH5alpha (F.sup.−, phi80dlacZΔM15, Δ(IacZYA-argF) U169, deoR, recA1, endA1, hsdR17(rk.sup.−, mk.sup.+), phoA, supE44, lambda.sup.−, thi-1, gyrA96, relA1) bought from Invitrogen.

[0447] Strains and Mutations

[0448] Escherichia coli K12 MG1655 [λ.sup.−, F.sup.−, rph-1] was obtained from the Coli Genetic Stock Center (US), CGSC Strain #: 7740, in March 2007. Gene disruptions, gene introductions and gene replacements were performed using the technique published by Datsenko and Wanner (PNAS 97 (2000), 6640-6645). This technique is based on antibiotic selection after homologous recombination performed by lambda Red recombinase. Subsequent catalysis of a flippase recombinase ensures removal of the antibiotic selection cassette in the final production strain. Transformants carrying a Red helper plasmid pKD46 were grown in 10 mL LB media with ampicillin, (100 mg/L) and L-arabinose (10 mM) at 30° C. to an OD.sub.600 nm of 0.6. The cells were made electrocompetent by washing them with 50 mL of ice-cold water, a first time, and with 1 mL ice cold water, a second time. Then, the cells were resuspended in 50 μL of ice-cold water. Electroporation was done with 50 μL of cells and 10-100 ng of linear double-stranded-DNA product by using a GENE PULSER™ (BioRad) (600 Ω, 25 μFD, and 250 volts). After electroporation, cells were added to 1 mL LB media incubated 1 h at 37° C., and finally spread onto LB-agar containing 25 mg/L of chloramphenicol or 50 mg/L of kanamycin to select antibiotic resistant transformants. The selected mutants were verified by PCR with primers upstream and downstream of the modified region and were grown in LB-agar at 42° C. for the loss of the helper plasmid. The mutants were tested for ampicillin sensitivity. The linear ds-DNA amplicons were obtained by PCR using pKD3, pKD4 and their derivates as template. The primers used had a part of the sequence complementary to the template and another part complementary to the side on the chromosomal DNA where the recombination must take place. For the genomic knock-out, the region of homology was designed 50-nt upstream and 50-nt downstream of the start and stop codon of the gene of interest. For the genomic knock-in, the transcriptional starting point (+1) had to be respected. PCR products were PCR-purified, digested with Dpnl, re-purified from an agarose gel, and suspended in elution buffer (5 mM Tris, pH 8.0). Selected mutants were transformed with pCP20 plasmid, which is an ampicillin and chloramphenicol resistant plasmid that shows temperature-sensitive replication and thermal induction of FLP synthesis. The ampicillin-resistant transformants were selected at 30° C., after which a few were colony purified in LB at 42° C. and then tested for loss of all antibiotic resistance and of the FLP helper plasmid. The gene knock outs and knock ins are checked with control primers.

[0449] In an example for sialic acid production, the mutant strain was derived from E. coli K12 MG1655 comprising genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units containing one or more copies of a glucosamine 6-phosphate N-acetyltransferase like e.g., GNA1 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae with SEQ ID NO:7, an N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase like e.g., AGE from Bacteroides ovatus with SEQ ID NO:9 and one or more copies of an N-acetylneuraminate synthase like e.g., NeuB from Neisseria meningitidis with SEQ ID NO:01 or from Campylobacter jejuni with SEQ ID NO:02.

[0450] Alternatively and/or additionally, sialic acid production can be obtained by genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units containing an UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase like e.g., NeuC from C. jejuni with SEQ ID NO:12 and one or more copies of an N-acetylneuraminate synthase like e.g., NeuB from N. meningitidis with SEQ ID NO:01 or from C. jejuni with SEQ ID NO:02.

[0451] Alternatively and/or additionally, sialic acid production can be obtained by genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units containing a phosphoglucosamine mutase like e.g., glmM from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:10, an N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate uridyltransferase/glucosamine-1-phosphate acetyltransferase like e.g., glmU from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:11, an UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase like e.g., NeuC from C. jejuni with SEQ ID NO: 12 and one or more copies of an N-acetylneuraminate synthase like e.g., NeuB from N. meningitidis with SEQ ID NO:01 or from C. jejuni with SEQ ID NO:02.

[0452] Alternatively and/or additionally, sialic acid production can be obtained by genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units containing a bifunctional UDP-GlcNAc 2-epimerase/N-acetylmannosamine kinase like e.g., from Mus musculus (strain C57BL/6J) with SEQ ID NO:13, an N-acylneuraminate-9-phosphate synthetase like e.g., from Syntrophorhabdus sp. PtaU1.Bin058 with SEQ ID NO:14 and an N-acylneuraminate-9-phosphatase like e.g., from Candidatus Magnetomorum sp. HK-1 with SEQ ID NO:15 and/or from Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron (strain ATCC 29148) with SEQ ID NO:16.

[0453] Alternatively and/or additionally, sialic acid production can be obtained by genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units containing a phosphoglucosamine mutase like e.g., glmM from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:10, an N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate uridyltransferase/glucosamine-1-phosphate acetyltransferase like e.g., glmU from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:11, a bifunctional UDP-GlcNAc 2-epimerase/N-acetylmannosamine kinase like e.g., from M. musculus (strain C57BL/6J) with SEQ ID NO:13, an N-acylneuraminate-9-phosphate synthetase like e.g., from Syntrophorhabdus sp. PtaU1.Bin058 with SEQ ID NO:14 and an N-acylneuraminate-9-phosphatase like e.g., from Candidatus magnetomorum sp. HK-1 with SEQ ID NO:15 and/or from Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron (strain ATCC 29148) with SEQ ID NO:16.

[0454] Sialic acid production can further be optimized in the mutant E. coli strain with genomic knock-outs of the E. coli genes comprising any one or more of nagA, nagB, nagC, nagD, nagE, nanA, nanE, nanK, manX, manY and manZ as described in WO 2018122225, and/or genomic knock-outs of the E. coli genes comprising any one or more of nanT, poxB, 1dhA, adhE, aldB, pflA, pflC, ybiY, ackA and/or pta and with genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units comprising any one or more of one or more copies of a sialic acid transporter like e.g., nanT from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:08, one or more copies of a membrane transporter protein like e.g., entS from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:49, MdfA from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:50, iceT from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:51, oppF from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:52, lmrA from Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis bv. diacetylactis with SEQ ID NO:53, Blon_2475 from Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis with SEQ ID NO:54, SetA from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:55, SetB from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:56 and SetC from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:57 or any combination thereof, one or more copies of an L-glutamine-D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase like e.g., the mutant glmS*54 from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:06 (differing from the wild-type E. coli glmS by an A39T, an R250C and an G472S mutation), preferably a phosphatase like any one or more of e.g., the E. coli genes comprising aphA, Cof, HisB, OtsB, SurE, Yaed, YcjU, YedP, YfbT, YidA, YigB, YihX, YniC, YqaB, YrbL, AppA, Gph, SerB, YbhA, YbiV, YbjL, Yfb, YieH, YjgL, YjjG, YrfG and YbiU or PsMupP from Pseudomonas putida, ScDOG1 from S. cerevisiae and BsAraL from Bacillus subtilis as described in WO 2018122225 and the acetyl-CoA synthetase acs from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:47.

[0455] For sialylated oligosaccharide production, the sialic acid production strains were further modified to express two or more isoproteins with N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase activity like e.g., the NeuA enzyme from C. jejuni with SEQ ID NO:03, the NeuA enzyme from Haemophilus influenzae with SEQ ID NO:04 and the NeuA enzyme from Pasteurella multocida with SEQ ID NO:05 and to express one or more copies of a beta-galactoside alpha-2,3-sialyltransferase like e.g., SEQ ID NO:17 (PmultST3) from P. multocida, SEQ ID NO:18 (NmeniST3) from N. meningitidis or SEQ ID NO:48 (PmultST2) from P. multocida subsp. multocida str. Pm70, a beta-galactoside alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase like e.g., SEQ ID NO:19 (PdST6) from Photobacterium damselae or SEQ ID NO:20 (P-JT-ISH-224-ST6) from Photobacterium sp. JT-ISH-224, and/or an alpha-2,8-sialyltransferase like e.g., from M. musculus with SEQ ID NO:21.

[0456] Constitutive transcriptional units of the N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferases and the sialyltransferases can be delivered to the mutant strain either via genomic knock-in or via expression plasmids. If the mutant strains producing sialic acid and CMP-sialic acid were intended to make sialylated lactose structures, the strains were additionally modified with genomic knock-outs of the E. coli LacZ, LacY and LacA genes and with a genomic knock-in of a constitutive transcriptional unit for a lactose permease like e.g., E. coli LacY with SEQ ID NO:22. All mutant strains producing sialic acid, CMP-sialic acid and/or sialylated oligosaccharides could optionally be adapted for growth on sucrose via genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units containing a sucrose transporter like e.g., CscB from E. coli W with SEQ ID NO:23, a fructose kinase like e.g., Frk originating from Z. mobilis with SEQ ID NO:24 and a sucrose phosphorylase like e.g., from B. adolescentis with SEQ ID NO:25.

[0457] Alternatively, and/or additionally, sialic acid and/or sialylated oligosaccharide production can further be optimized in the mutant E. coli strains with a genomic knock-in of a constitutive transcriptional unit comprising a membrane transporter protein like e.g., a sialic acid transporter like e.g., nanT from E. coli K-12 MG1655 (UniProt ID P41036), nanT from E. coli 06:H1 (UniProt ID Q8FD59), nanT from E. coli O157:H7 (UniProt ID Q8X9G8) or nanT from E. albertii (UniProt ID B1EFH1) or a porter like e.g., EntS from E. coli (UniProt ID P24077), EntS from Kluyvera ascorbata (UniProt ID A0A378GQ13) or EntS from Salmonella enterica subsp. arizonae (UniProt ID A0A6Y2K4E8), MdfA from Cronobacter muytjensii (UniProt ID A0A2T7ANQ9), MdfA from Citrobacter youngae (UniProt ID D4BC23), MdfA from E. coli (UniProt ID POAEY8), MdfA from Yokenella regensburgei (UniProt ID G9Z5F4), iceT from E. coli (UniProt ID A0A024L207), iceT from Citrobacter youngae (UniProt ID D4B8A6), SetA from E. coli (UniProt ID P31675), SetB from E. coli (UniProt ID P33026) or SetC from E. coli (UniProt ID P31436) or an ABC transporter like e.g., oppF from E. coli (UniProt ID P77737), lmrA from Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis bv. diacetylactis (UniProt ID A0A1VONEL4), or Blon_2475 from Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis (UniProt ID B7GPD4).

[0458] In an example for GDP-fucose production in the E. coli strains producing sialic acid, the mutant strains in these examples were further modified comprising knock-outs of the E. coli wcaJ and thyA genes and genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units containing a sucrose transporter like e.g., CscB from E. coli W with SEQ ID NO:23, a fructose kinase like e.g., Frk originating from Z. mobilis with SEQ ID NO:24 and a sucrose phosphorylase (SP) like e.g., from B. adolescentis with SEQ ID NO:25. For production of fucosylated oligosaccharides, the mutant GDP-fucose production strain was additionally modified with expression plasmids comprising constitutive transcriptional units for an alpha-1,2-fucosyltransferase like e.g., HpFutC from H. pylori with SEQ ID NO:26 and/or an alpha-1,3-fucosyltransferase like e.g., HpFucT from H. pylori with SEQ ID NO:27 and with a constitutive transcriptional unit for the E. coli thyA with SEQ ID NO:28 as selective marker. The constitutive transcriptional units of the fucosyltransferase genes could also be present in the mutant E. coli strain via genomic knock-ins. GDP-fucose production can further be optimized in the mutant E. coli strain by genomic knock-outs of any one or more of the E. coli genes comprising glgC, agp, pfkA, pfkB, pgi, arcA, icR, pgi and Ion as described in WO 2016075243 and WO 2012007481. GDP-fucose production can additionally be optimized comprising genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units for a mannose-6-phosphate isomerase like e.g., manA from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:29, a phosphomannomutase like e.g., manB from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:30, a mannose-1-phosphate guanylyltransferase like e.g., manC from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:31, a GDP-mannose 4,6-dehydratase like e.g., gmd from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:32 and a GDP-L-fucose synthase like e.g., fcl from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:33. GDP-fucose production can also be obtained by genomic knock-outs of the E. coli fucK and fucl genes and genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units containing a fucose permease like e.g., fucP from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:34 and a bifunctional fucose kinase/fucose-1-phosphate guanylyltransferase like e.g., fkp from Bacteroides fragilis with SEQ ID NO:35. If the mutant strains producing sialic acid and GDP-fucose were intended to make fucosylated lactose structures, the strains were additionally modified with genomic knock-outs of the E. coli LacZ, LacY and LacA genes and with a genomic knock-in of a constitutive transcriptional unit for a lactose permease like e.g., the E. coli LacY with SEQ ID NO:22. Furthermore, if the mutant strains were also intended to make sialylated structures, the strains were additionally modified with genomic knock-ins or expression plasmids comprising constitutive transcriptional units for one or more copies of an N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase like e.g., NeuA from C. jejuni with SEQ ID NO:03, NeuA from H. influenzae with SEQ ID NO:04 and/or NeuA from P. multocida with SEQ ID NO:05 and to express one or more copies of a beta-galactoside alpha-2,3-sialyltransferase like e.g., SEQ ID NO:17 (PmultST3) from P. multocida, SEQ ID NO:18 (NmeniST3) from N. meningitidis or SEQ ID NO:48 (PmultST2) from P. multocida subsp. multocida str. Pm70, a beta-galactoside alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase like e.g., SEQ ID NO:19 (PdST6) from P. damselae and/or SEQ ID NO:20 (P-JT-ISH-224-ST6) from Photobacterium sp. JT-ISH-224, and/or an alpha-2,8-sialyltransferase like e.g., from M. musculus with SEQ ID NO:21.

[0459] Alternatively, and/or additionally, production of GDP-fucose and/or fucosylated structures can further be optimized in the mutant E. coli strains with genomic knock-ins of a constitutive transcriptional unit comprising a membrane transporter protein like e.g., MdfA from Cronobacter muytjensii (UniProt ID AOA2T7ANQ9), MdfA from Citrobacter youngae (UniProt ID D4BC23), MdfA from E. coli (UniProt ID POAEY8), MdfA from Yokenella regensburgei (UniProt ID G9Z5F4), iceT from E. coli (UniProt ID A0A024L207) or iceT from Citrobacter youngae (UniProt ID D4B8A6).

[0460] In an example for production of LN3 (GlcNAc-b1,3-Gal-b1,4-Glc) in the E. coli strains producing sialic acid, the mutant strains in these examples were further modified comprising genomic knock-outs of the E. coli LacZ, LacY and LacA genes and genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units for a lactose permease like e.g., the E. coli LacY with SEQ ID NO:22 and a galactoside beta-1,3-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase like e.g., LgtA from N. meningitidis with SEQ ID NO:36.

[0461] In an example for production of LN-3 derived oligosaccharides like lacto-N-tetraose (LNT) and lacto-N-neotetraose (LNnT) the mutant LN3 producing strains were further modified with a constitutive transcriptional unit delivered to the strain either via genomic knock-in or from an expression plasmid for an N-acetylglucosamine beta-1,3-galactosyltransferase like e.g., WbgO from E. coli 055:H.sub.7 with SEQ ID NO:37 to produce LNT or for an N-acetylglucosamine beta-1,4-galactosyltransferase like e.g., LgtB from N. meningitidis with SEQ ID NO:38 to produce LNnT. Optionally, multiple copies of the galactoside beta-1,3-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase, the N-acetylglucosamine beta-1,3-galactosyltransferase and/or the N-acetylglucosamine beta-1,4-galactosyltransferase encoding genes could be added to the mutant E. coli strains. In addition, the strains can optionally be modified for enhanced UDP-galactose production with genomic knock-outs of the E. coli ushA and galT genes. The mutant E. coli strains can also optionally be adapted with a genomic knock-in of a constitutive transcriptional unit for an UDP-glucose-4-epimerase like e.g., galE from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:39. Furthermore, if the mutant strains were also intended to make sialylated structures, the strains were additionally modified with genomic knock-ins or expression plasmids comprising constitutive transcriptional units for one or more copies of an N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase like e.g., NeuA from C. jejuni with SEQ ID NO:03, NeuA from H. influenzae with SEQ ID NO:04 and/or NeuA from P. multocida with SEQ ID NO:05 and to express one or more copies of a beta-galactoside alpha-2,3-sialyltransferase like e.g., SEQ ID NO:17 (PmultST3) from P. multocida, SEQ ID NO:18 (NmeniST3) from N. meningitidis or SEQ ID NO:48 (PmultST2) from P. multocida subsp. multocida str. Pm70, a beta-galactoside alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase like e.g., SEQ ID NO:19 (PdST6) from P. damselae and/or SEQ ID NO:20 (P-JT-ISH-224-ST6) from Photobacterium sp. JT-ISH-224, and/or an alpha-2,8-sialyltransferase like e.g., from M. musculus with SEQ ID NO:21. The mutant E. coli strains can also optionally be adapted for growth on sucrose via genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units containing a sucrose transporter like e.g., CscB from E. coli W with SEQ ID NO:23, a fructose kinase like e.g., Frk originating from Z. mobilis with SEQ ID NO:24 and a sucrose phosphorylase like e.g., from B. adolescentis with SEQ ID NO:25.

[0462] Alternatively, and/or additionally, production of LN3, LNT, LNnT and oligosaccharides derived thereof can further be optimized in the mutant E. coli strains with a genomic knock-in of a constitutive transcriptional unit comprising a membrane transporter protein like e.g., MdfA from Cronobacter muytjensii (UniProt ID A0A2T7ANQ9), MdfA from Citrobacter youngae (UniProt ID D4BC23), MdfA from E. coli (UniProt ID P0AEY8), MdfA from Yokenella regensburgei (UniProt ID G9Z5F4), iceT from E. coli (UniProt ID A0A024L207) or iceT from Citrobacter youngae (UniProt ID D4B8A6).Preferably but not necessarily, the glycosyltransferases, the proteins involved in nucleotide-activated sugar synthesis and/or membrane transporter proteins were N- and/or C-terminally fused to a solubility enhancer tag like e.g., a SUMO-tag, an MBP-tag, His, FLAG®, Strep-II, Halo-tag, NusA, thioredoxin, GST and/or the Fh8-tag to enhance their solubility (Costa et al., Front. Microbiol. 2014, doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2014.00063; Fox et al., Protein Sci. 2001, 10(3), 622-630; Jia and Jeaon, Open Biol. 2016, 6: 160196).

[0463] Optionally, the mutant E. coli strains were modified with a genomic knock-in of a constitutive transcriptional unit encoding a chaperone protein like e.g., DnaK, DnaJ, GrpE, or the GroEL/ES chaperonin system (Baneyx F., Palumbo J. L. (2003) Improving Heterologous Protein Folding via Molecular Chaperone and Foldase Co-Expression. In: Vaillancourt P. E. (eds) E. coli Gene Expression Protocols. Methods in Molecular Biology™, vol 205. Humana Press).

[0464] Optionally, the mutant E. coli strains are modified to create a glycominimized E. coli strain comprising genomic knock-out of any one or more of non-essential glycosyltransferase genes comprising pgaC, pgaD, rfe, rffT, rffM, bcsA, bcsB, bcsC, wcaA, wcaC, wcaE, wcaI, wcaJ, wcaL, waaH, waaF, waaC, waaU, waaZ, waaJ, waaO, waafl, waaS, waaG, waaQ, wbbl, armC, arnT, yfdH, wbbK, opgG, opgH, ycjM, glgA, glgB, malQ, otsA and yaiP.

[0465] All constitutive promoters, UTRs and terminator sequences originated from the libraries described by Cambray et al. (Nucleic Acids Res. 2013, 41(9), 5139-5148), Dunn et al. (Nucleic Acids Res. 1980, 8, 2119-2132), Edens et al. (Nucleic Acids Res. 1975, 2, 1811-1820), Kim and Lee (FEBS Letters 1997, 407, 353-356) and Mutalik et al. (Nat. Methods 2013, No. 10, 354-360).

[0466] All genes were ordered synthetically at Twist Bioscience (twistbioscience.com) or IDT (eu.idtdna.com) and the codon usage was adapted using the tools of the supplier.

[0467] All strains were stored in cryovials at −80° C. (overnight LB culture mixed in a 1:1 ratio with 7000 glycerol).

TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Overview of SEQ ID NOs described in the disclosure Country of SEQ origin of digital ID sequence NO: Name/identifier Organism Origin information 01 NeuB Neisseria meningitidis Synthetic United Kingdom 02 NeuB Campylobacter jejuni Synthetic USA 03 NeuA Campylobacter jejuni Synthetic USA 04 NeuA Haemophilus influenzae Synthetic USA 05 NeuA Pasteurella multocida Synthetic USA 06 glmS*54 Escherichia coli K-12 Synthetic USA MG1655 07 GNA1 Saccharomyces cerevisiae Synthetic USA 08 nanT (P41036) Escherichia coli K-12 Synthetic USA MG1655 09 AGE Bacteroides ovatus Synthetic USA 10 glmM Escherichia coli K-12 Synthetic USA MG1655 11 glmU Escherichia coli K-12 Synthetic USA MG1655 12 NeuC Campylobacter jejuni Synthetic USA 13 GNE Mus musculus (strain Synthetic USA C57BL/6J) 14 NANS Syntrophorhabdus sp. Synthetic USA PtaU1.Bin058 15 NANP Candidatus Magnetomorum Synthetic Germany sp. HK-1 16 NANP Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron Synthetic Unknown 17 alpha-2,3- Pasteurella multocida Synthetic USA sialyltransferase 18 alpha-2,3- Neisseria meningitidis Synthetic United Kingdom sialyltransferase 19 alpha-2,6- Photobacterium damselae Synthetic Japan sialyltransferase 20 alpha-2,6- Photobacterium sp. JT-ISH- Synthetic Japan sialyltransferase 224 21 alpha-2,8- Mus musculus Synthetic USA sialyltransferase 22 LacY Escherichia coli K-12 Synthetic USA MG1655 23 CscB Escherichia coli W Synthetic USA 24 Frk Zymomonas mobilis Synthetic United Kingdom 25 BaSP Bifidobacterium adolescentis Synthetic Germany 26 HpFutC Helicobacter pylori UA1234 Synthetic United Kingdom 27 HpFucT Helicobacter pylori UA1234 Synthetic United Kingdom 28 thyA Escherichia coli K-12 Synthetic USA MG1655 29 manA Escherichia coli K-12 Synthetic USA MG1655 30 manB Escherichia coli K-12 Synthetic USA MG1655 31 manC Escherichia coli K-12 Synthetic USA MG1655 32 gmd Escherichia coli K-12 Synthetic USA MG1655 33 fc1 Escherichia coli K-12 Synthetic USA MG1655 34 fucP Escherichia coli K-12 Synthetic USA MG1655 35 fkp Bacteroides fragilis NCTC Synthetic United Kingdom 9343 36 lgtA Neisseria meningitidis Synthetic United Kingdom 37 wbgO Escherichia coli O55:H7 Synthetic Germany 38 lgtB Neisseria meningitidis MC58 Synthetic United Kingdom 39 galE Escherichia coli K-12 Synthetic USA MG1655 40 LAC12 Kluyveromyces lactis Synthetic USA 41 ppsA Escherichia coli K-12 Synthetic USA MG1655 42 PCK Corynebacterium glutamicum Synthetic Denmark 43 pcka Escherichia coli K-12 Synthetic USA MG1655 44 eda Escherichia coli K-12 Synthetic USA MG1655 45 maeA Escherichia coli K-12 Synthetic USA MG1655 46 maeB Escherichia coli K-12 Synthetic USA MG1655 47 acs Escherichia coli K-12 Synthetic USA MG1655 48 alpha-2,3- Pasteurella multocida subsp. Synthetic Unknown sialyltransferase multocida str. Pm70 49 entS Escherichia coli K-12 Synthetic USA MG1655 50 MdfA Escherichia coli K-12 Synthetic USA MG1655 51 iceT Escherichia coli K-12 Synthetic USA MG1655 52 oppF Escherichia coli K-12 Synthetic USA MG1655 53 LmrA Lactococcus lactis subsp. Synthetic Serbia lactis bv. diacetylactis 54 Blon_2475 Bifidobacterium longum Synthetic Germany subsp. infantis 55 SetA Escherichia coli K-12 Synthetic USA MG1655 56 SetB Escherichia coli K-12 Synthetic USA MG1655 57 SetC Escherichia coli K-12 Synthetic USA MG1655

[0468] Cultivation Conditions

[0469] A preculture of 96-well microtiter plate experiments was started from a cryovial, in 150 μL LB and was incubated overnight at 37° C. on an orbital shaker at 800 rpm. This culture was used as inoculum for a 96-well square microtiter plate, with 400 μL minimal medium by diluting 400x. These final 96-well culture plates were then incubated at 37° C. on an orbital shaker at 800 rpm for 72 h, or shorter, or longer. To measure sugar concentrations at the end of the cultivation experiment whole broth samples were taken from each well by boiling the culture broth for 15 min at 60° C. before spinning down the cells (=average of intra- and extracellular sugar concentrations).

[0470] A preculture for the bioreactor was started from an entire 1 mL cryovial of a certain strain, inoculated in 250 mL or 500 mL minimal medium in a 1 L or 2.5 L shake flask and incubated for 24 h at 37° C. on an orbital shaker at 200 rpm. A 5 L bioreactor (having a 5 L working volume) was then inoculated (250 mL inoculum in 2 L batch medium); the process was controlled by MFCS control software (Sartorius Stedim Biotech, Melsungen, Germany). Culturing condition were set to 37° C., and maximal stirring; pressure gas flow rates were dependent on the strain and bioreactor. The pH was controlled at 6.8 using 0.5 M H2S04 and 20% NH4OH. The exhaust gas was cooled. 10% solution of silicone antifoaming agent was added when foaming raised during the fermentation.

[0471] Optical Density

[0472] Cell density of the cultures was frequently monitored by measuring optical density at 600 nm (Implen Nanophotometer NP80, Westburg, Belgium or with a Spark 10M microplate reader, Tecan, Switzerland).

[0473] Analytical Analysis

[0474] Standards such as but not limited to sucrose, lactose, N-acetyllactosamine (LacNAc, Gal-b1,4-GlcNAc), lacto-N-biose (LNB, Gal-b1,3-GlcNAc), fucosylated LacNAc (2′FLacNAc, 3-FLacNAc), sialylated LacNAc, (3′SLacNAc, 6′SLacNAc), fucosylated LNB (2′FLNB, 4′FLNB), lacto-N-triose II (LN3), lacto-N-tetraose (LNT), lacto-N-neo-tetraose (LNnT), LNFP-I, LNFP-II, LNFP-III, LNFP-V, LNFP-VI, LSTa, LSTc and LSTd were purchased from Carbosynth (UK), Elicityl (France) and IsoSep (Sweden). Other compounds were analyzed with in-house made standards.

[0475] Sialylated oligosaccharides were analyzed on a Waters Acquity H-class UPLC with Refractive Index (RI) detection. A volume of 0.5 μL sample was injected on a Waters Acquity UPLC BEH Amide column (2.1×100 mm; 130 Å; 1.7 μm). The column temperature was 50° C. The mobile phase consisted of a mixture of 70% acetonitrile, 26% ammonium acetate buffer (150 mM) and 4% methanol to which 0.05% pyrrolidine was added. The method was isocratic with a flow of 0.150 mL/min. The temperature of the RI detector was set at 35° C. Neutral oligosaccharides were analyzed on a Waters Acquity H-class UPLC with Evaporative Light Scattering Detector (ELSD) or a Refractive Index (RI) detection. A volume of 0.7 μL sample was injected on a Waters Acquity UPLC BEH Amide column (2.1×100 mm; 130 Å; 1.7 μm) column with an Acquity UPLC BEH Amide VanGuard column, 130 Å, 2.1×5 mm. The column temperature was 50° C. The mobile phase consisted of a ¼ water and ¾ acetonitrile solution to which 0.2% triethylamine was added. The method was isocratic with a flow of 0.130 mL/min. The ELS detector had a drift tube temperature of 50° C. and the N2 gas pressure was 50 psi, the gain 200 and the data rate 10 pps. The temperature of the RI detector was set at 35° C. Both neutral and sialylated sugars were analyzed on a Waters Acquity H-class UPLC with Refractive Index (RI) detection. A volume of 0.5 μL sample was injected on a Waters Acquity UPLC BEH Amide column (2.1×100 mm; 130 Å; 1.7 μm). The column temperature was 50° C. The mobile phase consisted of a mixture of 72% acetonitrile and 28% ammonium acetate buffer (100 mM) to which 0.1% triethylamine was added. The method was isocratic with a flow of 0.260 mL/min. The temperature of the RI detector was set at 35° C.

[0476] For analysis on a mass spectrometer, a Waters Xevo TQ-MS with Electron Spray Ionisation (ESI) was used with a desolvation temperature of 450° C., a nitrogen desolvation gas flow of 650 L/h and a cone voltage of 20 V. The MS was operated in selected ion monitoring (SIM) in negative mode for all oligosaccharides. Separation was performed on a Waters Acquity UPLC with a Thermo Hypercarb column (2.1×100 mm; 3 μm) on 35° C. A gradient was used wherein eluent A was ultrapure water with 0.1% formic acid and wherein eluent B was acetonitrile with 0.1% formic acid. The oligosaccharides were separated in 55 min using the following gradient: an initial increase from 2 to 12% of eluent B over 21 min, a second increase from 12 to 40% of eluent B over 11 min and a third increase from 40 to 100% of eluent B over 5 min. As a washing step 100% of eluent B was used for 5 min. For column equilibration, the initial condition of 2% of eluent B was restored in 1 min and maintained for 12 min.

[0477] Both neutral and sialylated sugars at low concentrations (below 50 mg/L) were analyzed on a Dionex HPAEC system with pulsed amperometric detection (PAD). A volume of 5 μL of sample was injected on a Dionex CarboPac PA200 column 4×250 mm with a Dionex CarboPac PA200 guard column 4×50 mm. The column temperature was set to 30° C. A gradient was used wherein eluent A was deionized water, wherein eluent B was 200 mM Sodium hydroxide and wherein eluent C was 500 mM Sodium acetate. The oligosaccharides were separated in 60 min while maintaining a constant ratio of 25% of eluent B using the following gradient: an initial isocratic step maintained for 10 min of 75% of eluent A, an initial increase from 0 to 4% of eluent C over 8 min, a second isocratic step maintained for 6 min of 71% of eluent A and 4% of eluent C, a second increase from 4 to 12% of eluent C over 2.6 min, a third isocratic step maintained for 3.4 min of 63% of eluent A and 12% of eluent C and a third increase from 12 to 48% of eluent C over 5 min. As a washing step 48% of eluent C was used for 3 min. For column equilibration, the initial condition of 75% of eluent A and 0% of eluent C was restored in 1 min and maintained for 11 min. The applied flow was 0.5 mL/min.

Example 3. Materials and Methods Saccharomyces cerevisiae

[0478] Media

[0479] Strains were grown on Synthetic Defined yeast medium with Complete Supplement Mixture (SD CSM) or CSM drop-out (SD CSM-Ura, SD CSM-Trp, SD CSM-His) containing 6.7 g/L Yeast Nitrogen Base without amino acids (YNB w/o AA, Difco), 20 g/L agar (Difco) (solid cultures), 22 g/L glucose monohydrate or 20 g/L lactose and 0.79 g/L CSM or 0.77 g/L CSM-Ura, 0.77 g/L CSM-Trp, or 0.77 g/L CSM-His (MP Biomedicals).

[0480] Strains

[0481] S. cerevisiae BY4742 created by Brachmann et al. (Yeast (1998) 14:115-32) was used, available in the Euroscarf culture collection. All mutant strains were created by homologous recombination or plasmid transformation using the method of Gietz (Yeast 11:355-360, 1995).

[0482] Plasmids

[0483] In an example to produce sialic acid and CMP-sialic acid, a yeast expression plasmid can be derived from the pRS420-plasmid series (Christianson et al., 1992, Gene 110: 119-122) containing the TRP1 selection marker and constitutive transcriptional units for one or more copies of an L-glutamine-D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase like e.g., the mutant glmS*54 from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:06, a phosphatase like any one or more of e.g., the E. coli genes comprising aphA, Cof, HisB, OtsB, SurE, Yaed, YcjU, YedP, YfbT, YidA, YigB, YihX, YniC, YqaB, YrbL, AppA, Gph, SerB, YbhA, YbiV, YbjL, Yfb, YieH, YjgL, YjjG, YrfG and YbiU or PsMupP from Pseudomonas putida, ScDOG1 from S. cerevisiae and BsAraL from Bacillus subtilis as described in WO 2018122225, an N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase like e.g., AGE from B. ovatus with SEQ ID NO:09, one or more copies of an N-acetylneuraminate synthase like e.g., NeuB from N. meningitidis with SEQ ID NO:01 or from C. jejuni with SEQ ID NO:02, and one or more copies of an N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase like e.g., NeuA from C. jejuni with SEQ ID NO:03, NeuA from H. influenzae with SEQ ID NO:04 and/or NeuA from P. multocida with SEQ ID NO:05. Optionally, a constitutive transcriptional unit comprising one or more copies for a glucosamine 6-phosphate N-acetyltransferase like e.g., GNA1 from S. cerevisiae with SEQ ID NO:07 was added as well.

[0484] To produce sialylated oligosaccharides, the plasmid further comprised constitutive transcriptional units for a lactose permease like e.g., LAC12 from Kluyveromyces lactis with SEQ ID NO:40, and one or more copies of a beta-galactoside alpha-2,3-sialyltransferase like e.g., SEQ ID NO:17 (PmultST3) from P. multocida, SEQ ID NO:18 (NmeniST3) from N. meningitidis or SEQ ID NO:48 (PmultST2) from P. multocida subsp. multocida str. Pm70, a beta-galactoside alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase like e.g., SEQ ID NO:19 (PdST6) from P. damselae and/or SEQ ID NO:20 (P-JT-ISH-224-ST6) from Photobacterium sp. JT-ISH-224, and/or an alpha-2,8-sialyltransferase like e.g., from M. musculus with SEQ ID NO:21.

[0485] In an example to produce GDP-fucose, a yeast expression plasmid like p2a_2μ_Fuc (Chan 2013, Plasmid 70, 2-17) can be used for expression of foreign genes in S. cerevisiae. This plasmid contains an ampicillin resistance gene and a bacterial origin of replication to allow for selection and maintenance in E. coli and the 2p yeast on and the Ura3 selection marker for selection and maintenance in yeast. This plasmid is further modified with constitutive transcriptional units for a lactose permease like e.g., LAC12 from K. lactis with SEQ ID NO:40, a GDP-mannose 4,6-dehydratase like e.g., gmd from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:32 and a GDP-L-fucose synthase like e.g., fcl from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:33. The yeast expression plasmid p2a_2μ_Fuc2 can be used as an alternative expression plasmid of the p2a_2μ_Fuc plasmid comprising next to the ampicillin resistance gene, the bacterial ori, the 2μ yeast on and the Ura3 selection marker constitutive transcriptional units for a lactose permease like e.g., LAC12 from K. lactis with SEQ ID NO:40, a fucose permease like e.g., fucP from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:34 and a bifunctional fucose kinase/fucose-1-phosphate guanylyltransferase like e.g., fkp from B. fragilis with SEQ ID NO:35. To further produce fucosylated oligosaccharides, the p2a_2μ_Fuc and its variant the p2a_2μ_Fuc2, additionally contained (a) constitutive transcriptional unit(s) for one or more fucosyltransferases like e.g., SEQ ID NOs:26 and 27.

[0486] In an example to produce UDP-galactose, a yeast expression plasmid can be derived from the pRS420-plasmid series (Christianson et al., 1992, Gene 110: 119-122) containing the HIS3 selection marker and a constitutive transcriptional unit for an UDP-glucose-4-epimerase like e.g., galE from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:39. This plasmid was further modified with constitutive transcriptional units for a lactose permease like e.g., LAC12 from K. lactis with SEQ ID NO:40, a galactoside beta-1,3-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase like e.g., lgtA from N. meningitidis with SEQ ID NO:36 to produce LN3. To further produce LN3-derived oligosaccharides like LNT or LNnT, an N-acetylglucosamine beta-1,3-galactosyltransferase like e.g., WbgO from E. coli 055:H7 with SEQ ID NO:37 or an N-acetylglucosamine beta-1,4-galactosyltransferase like e.g., lgtB from N. meningitidis with SEQ ID NO:38, respectively, was also added on the plasmid.

[0487] Preferably but not necessarily, the glycosyltransferases were N-terminally fused to a SUMOstar tag (e.g., obtained from pYSUMOstar, Life Sensors, Malvern, PA) to enhance their solubility.

[0488] Plasmids were maintained in the host E. coli DH5alpha (F.sup.−, phi80dlacZdeltaM15, delta(lacZYA-argF)U169, deoR, recA1, endA1, hsdR17(rk.sup.−, mk.sup.+), phoA, supE44, lambda.sup.−, thi-1, gyrA96, relA1) bought from Invitrogen.

[0489] Heterologous and Homologous Expression

[0490] Genes that needed to be expressed, be it from a plasmid or from the genome were synthetically synthetized with one of the following companies: DNA2.0, Gen9, IDT or Twist Bioscience. Expression could be further facilitated by optimizing the codon usage to the codon usage of the expression host. Genes were optimized using the tools of the supplier.

[0491] Cultivations Conditions

[0492] In general, yeast strains were initially grown on SD CSM plates to obtain single colonies. These plates were grown for 2-3 days at 30° C. Starting from a single colony, a preculture was grown over night in 5 mL at 30° C., shaking at 200 rpm. Subsequent 125 mL shake flask experiments were inoculated with 2% of this preculture, in 25 mL media. These shake flasks were incubated at 30° C. with an orbital shaking of 200 rpm.

[0493] Gene Expression Promoters

[0494] Genes were expressed using synthetic constitutive promoters, as described by Blazeck (Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Vol. 109, No. 11, 2012).

Example 4. Production of 6′-sialyllactose (6′-SL) with a Modified E. coli Strain

[0495] An E. coli K-12 strain MG1655 was modified for sialic acid and 6′-siayllactose production as described in Example 2 comprising knock-outs of the E. coli nagA, nagB, nanA, nanT, nanE, nanK, LacZ, LacY and LacA genes and genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units containing the lactose permease (LacY) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:22, the sialic acid transporter (nanT) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:08, the L-glutamine D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase (glmS*54) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:06, the glucosamine 6-phosphate N-acetyltransferase (GNA1) from S. cerevisiae with SEQ ID NO:07, the N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase (AGE) from B. ovatus with SEQ ID NO:09, the N-acetylneuraminate synthase (NeuB) from C. jejuni with SEQ ID NO:02, the sucrose transporter (CscB) from E. coli W with SEQ ID NO:23, fructose kinase (Frk) from Z. mobilis with SEQ ID NO:24 and the sucrose phosphorylase from B. adolescentis with SEQ ID NO:25. The thus obtained mutant E. coli strain S0 was further modified with genomic knock-ins and/or expression plasmids with constitutive transcriptional units to express [0496] a) one N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase enzyme NeuA from C. jejuni with SEQ ID NO:03 and one beta-galactoside alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase PdbST from P. damselae with SEQ ID NO:19, [0497] b) two N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase isoproteins consisting of the NeuA enzyme from C. jejuni with SEQ ID NO:03 and the NeuA enzyme from H. influenzae with SEQ ID NO:04, and two copies of the beta-galactoside alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase PdbST from P. damselae with SEQ ID NO:19, or [0498] c) three N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase isoproteins consisting of the NeuA enzyme from C. jejuni with SEQ ID NO:03, the NeuA enzyme from H. influenzae with SEQ ID NO:04 and the NeuA enzyme from P. multocida with SEQ ID NO:05, and three copies of the beta-galactoside alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase PdbST from P. damselae with SEQ ID NO:19, [0499] creating the mutant E. coli strains S1, S2 and S3, respectively, as summarized in Table 2. Details on the promoter, UTR and terminator sequences used to express the NeuA enzymes or PdbST is summarized in Table 3. The novel strains were evaluated in a growth experiment according to the culture conditions provided in Example 2, in which the culture medium contained 30 g/L sucrose and 20 g/L lactose. Each strain was grown in four biological replicates in a 96-well plate. After 72 h of incubation, the culture broth was harvested, and the sugars were analyzed on UPLC.

[0500] The experiment demonstrated all novel strains produced 6′-SL. Herein, strain S2 expressing two isoproteins with N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase activity, i.e., SEQ ID NOs:03 and 04, and two copies of the PdbST enzyme from P. damselae with SEQ TD NO:19 produced 2.60 times more 6′-SL compared to strain S1 expressing one NeuA enzyme from C. jejuni with SEQ ID NO:03 and one copy of the PdbST enzyme from P. damselae with SEQ ID NO: 19. In the same experiment, strain S3 expressing three isoproteins with N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase activity, i.e., SEQ TD NOs:03, 04 and 05, and three copies of the PdbST enzyme from P. damselae with SEQ TD NO:19 produced 11.50 times more 6′-SL compared to strain 1 expressing one NeuA enzyme from C. jejuni with SEQ ID NO:03 and one copy of the PdbST enzyme from P. damselae with SEQ ID NO:19. The experiment further demonstrated all mutant strains had a similar growth rate and did not suffer from any genomic or plasmid DNA instability or reorganization during cultivation (Results not shown).

TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 Additional transcriptional units present in E. coli strain S1, S2 and S3 compared to the parental E. coli strain S0 Transcriptional unit Pro- Ter- moter UTR minator se- se- se- Strain Location quence* quence* Coding DNA sequence quence* S1 Genomic P35 U18 CjNeuA = SEQ ID NO: 3 T2 knock-in Genomic P50 U10 PdbST = SEQ ID NO: 19 T1 knock-in S2 Genomic P35 U18 CjNeuA = SEQ ID NO: 3 T2 knock-in Genomic P26 U18 HiNeuA = SEQ ID T9 knock-in NO: 04 Genomic P50 U10 PdbST = SEQ ID NO: 19 T1 knock-in Genomic P5 U10 PdbST = SEQ ID NO: 19 T7 knock-in S3 Genomic P35 U18 CjNeuA = SEQ ID NO: 3 T2 knock-in Genomic P26 U18 HiNeuA = SEQ ID T9 knock-in NO: 04 Plasmid P26 U18 PmultNeuA = SEQ ID T9 NO: 05 Genomic P50 U10 PdbST = SEQ ID NO: 19 T1 knock-in Genomic P5 U10 PdbST = SEQ ID NO: 19 T7 knock-in Plasmid P5 U10 PdbST = SEQ ID NO: 19 T7 *See Table 3

TABLE-US-00003 TABLE 3 Promoter, UTR and terminator sequences used to express the neuA isoproteins or the alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase PdbST in the mutant E. coli strains S1, S2 and S3 as given in Table 2 Promoter sequence Reference P5 = PROM0005 = Mutalik_P5 Mutalik et al. (Nat. Methods 2013, 10, 354-360) P26 = PROM0026 = Mutalik et al. (Nat. Methods 2013, 10, 354-360) Mutalik_apFAB110 P35 = PROM0035 = Mutalik_apFAB37 Mutalik et al. (Nat. Methods 2013, 10, 354-360) P50 = PROM0050 = Mutalik_apFAB82 Mutalik et al. (Nat. Methods 2013, 10, 354-360) UTR sequence Reference U10= UTR0010_GalE_BCD12 Mutalik et al. (Nat. Methods 2013, 10, 354-360) U18= UTR0018_GalE_BCD18 Mutalik et al. (Nat. Methods 2013, 10, 354-360) Terminator sequence Reference T1 = TER0001_TT5-T7 Dunn et al. (Nucleic Acids Res. 1980, 8, 2119-2132) T2 = TER0002_rrnBT1_rrnBT2 Kim and Lee (FEBS Letters 1997, 407, 353-356) T7 = TER0007_ilvGEDA Cambray et al. (Nucleic Acids Res. 2013, 41, 5139- 5148) T9 = TER0009_M13_central Edens et al. (Nucleic Acids Res. 1975, 2, 1811-1820)

Example 5. Production of 3′-Sialyllactose (3′-SL) with a Modified E. coli Strain

[0501] An E. coli K-12 strain MG1655 was modified for sialic acid and 3′-siayllactose production as described in Example 2 comprising knock-outs of the E. coli nagA, nagB, nanA, nanT, nanE, nanK, LacZ, LacY and LacA genes and genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units containing the lactose permease (LacY) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:22, the sialic acid transporter (nanT) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO: 08, two copies of the L-glutamine D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase (glmS*54) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:06, two copies of the glucosamine 6-phosphate N-acetyltransferase (GNA1) from S. cerevisiae with SEQ ID NO:07, the N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase (AGE) from B. ovatus with SEQ ID NO:09, the N-acetylneuraminate synthase (NeuB) from N. meningitidis with SEQ ID NO:01, the sucrose transporter (CscB) from E. coli W with SEQ ID NO:23, fructose kinase (Frk) from Z. mobilis with SEQ ID NO:24 and the sucrose phosphorylase from B. adolescentis with SEQ ID NO:25. The thus obtained mutant E. coli strain S30 was further modified with genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units to express [0502] a) one copy of the N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase enzyme from P. multocida with SEQ ID NO:05 and one copy of the beta-galactoside alpha-2,3-sialyltransferase PmultST3 from P. multocida with SEQ ID NO:17, or [0503] b) two copies of the NeuA enzyme from P. multocida with SEQ ID NO:05 and two copies of the PmultST3 sialyltransferase from P. multocida with SEQ ID NO:17, [0504] creating the mutant E. coli strains S4 and S5, respectively, as summarized in Table 4. Details on the promoter, UTR and terminator sequences used to express the NeuA enzymes or PmultST3 is summarized in Table 5. The novel strains were evaluated in a growth experiment according to the culture conditions provided in Example 2, in which the culture medium contained 30 g/L sucrose and 20 g/L lactose. Each strain was grown in four biological replicates in a 96-well plate. After 72 h of incubation, the culture broth was harvested, and the sugars were analyzed on UPLC.

[0505] The experiment demonstrated both novel strains S4 and S5 produced 3′-SL. Herein, strain S4 expressing two copies of the NeuA enzyme from P. multocida with SEQ ID NO:05, and two copies of the PmultST3 enzyme from P. multocida with SEQ ID NO:17 produced 3.70 times more 3′-SL compared to strain S30 expressing one copy of the NeuA enzyme from P. multocida with SEQ ID NO:05, and one copy of the PmultST3 enzyme from P. multocida with SEQ ID NO:17. The experiment further demonstrated that both mutant strains S4 and S5 had a similar growth rate and did not suffer from any genomic or plasmid DNA instability or reorganization during cultivation.

TABLE-US-00004 TABLE 4 Additional transcriptional units present in E. coli strain S4 and S5 compared to the parental E. coli strain S30 Transcriptional unit Promoter UTR Ter- se- se- minator Strain Location quence* quence* Coding DNA sequence sequence* S4 Genomic P26 U18 PmultNeuA = SEQ ID T9 knock-in NO: 05 Genomic P50 U14 PmultST3 = SEQ ID T7 knock-in NO: 17 S5 Genomic P26 U18 PmultNeuA = SEQ ID T9 knock-in NO: 05 Genomic P26 U11 PmultNeuA = SEQ ID T9 knock-in NO: 05 Genomic P50 U14 PmultST3 = SEQ ID T7 knock-in NO: 17 Genomic P50 U14 PmultST3 = SEQ ID T7 knock-in NO: 17 *See Table 5

TABLE-US-00005 TABLE 5 Promoter, UTR and terminator sequences used to express PmultNeuA or alpha-2,3-sialyltransferase PmultST3 in the mutant E. coli strains S4 and S5 as given in Table 4 Promoter sequence Reference P26 = PROM0026 = Mutalik et al. (Nat. Methods 2013, 10, 354-360) Mutalik_apFAB110 P50 = PROM0050 = Mutalik_apFAB82 Mutalik et al. (Nat. Methods 2013, 10, 354-360) UTR sequence Reference UTR11 = UTR0011_Gene10_LeuL Mutalik et al. (Nat. Methods 2013, 10, 354-360) U14 = UTR0014_GalE_LeuAB Mutalik et al. (Nat. Methods 2013, 10, 354-360) U18 = UTR0018_GalE_BCD18 Mutalik et al. (Nat. Methods 2013, 10, 354-360) Terminator sequence Reference T7 = TER0007_ilvGEDA Cambray et al. (Nucleic Acids Res. 2013, 41, 5139- 5148) T9 = TER0009_M13_central Edens et al. (Nucleic Acids Res. 1975, 2, 1811-1820)

Example 6. Production of 6′-Sialyllactose (6′-SL) with a Modified E. coli Strain

[0506] In a first step, an E. coli K-12 strain MG1655 was modified comprising knock-outs of the E. coli nagA, nagB, nanA, nanT, nanE, nanK, LacZ, LacY, LacA, ackA-pta, ldhA and poxB genes and the O-antigen cluster comprising all genes between wbbK and wcaN with wbbK and wcaN included. In a next step, the mutant strain was further modified with genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units containing the lactose permease (LacY) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:22, the sialic acid transporter (nanT) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:08, two copies of the L-glutamine D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase (glmS*54) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:06, two copies of the glucosamine 6-phosphate N-acetyltransferase (GNA1) from S. cerevisiae with SEQ ID NO:07, the N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase (AGE) from B. ovatus with SEQ ID NO:09, the N-acetylneuraminate synthase (NeuB) from N. meningitidis with SEQ ID NO:01, the acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase (acs) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:47, the sucrose transporter (CscB) from E. coli W with SEQ ID NO:23, fructose kinase (Frk) from Z. mobilis with SEQ ID NO:24 and the sucrose phosphorylase from B. adolescentis with SEQ ID NO:25. The thus obtained mutant E. coli strain was further modified with genomic knock-ins and an expression plasmid with constitutive transcriptional units to express three N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase isoproteins consisting of the NeuA enzyme from C. jejuni with SEQ ID NO:03, the NeuA enzyme from H. influenzae with SEQ ID NO:04 and the NeuA enzyme from P. multocida with SEQ ID NO:05, and three copies of the beta-galactoside alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase PdbST from P. damselae with SEQ ID NO:19. The novel strain was evaluated in a growth experiment according to the culture conditions provided in Example 2, in which the culture medium contained 30 g/L sucrose and 20 g/L lactose. The strain was grown in four biological replicates in a 96-well plate. After 72 h of incubation, the culture broth was harvested, and the sugars were analyzed on UPLC. The experiment demonstrated the novel strain produced sialic acid (Neu5Ac) and 6′-SL and did not suffer from any genomic or plasmid DNA instability or reorganization during cultivation.

Example 7. Production of 3′-Sialyllactose (3′-SL) with a Modified E. coli Strain

[0507] An E. coli K-12 strain MG1655 is modified for sialic acid and 3′-siayllactose production as described in Example 2 comprising knock-outs of the E. coli nagA, nagB, nanA, nanT, nanE, nanK, LacZ, LacY and LacA genes and genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units containing the lactose permease (LacY) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:22, the sialic acid transporter (nanT) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:08, two copies of the L-glutamine D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase (glmS*54) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:06, two copies of the glucosamine 6-phosphate N-acetyltransferase (GNA1) from S. cerevisiae with SEQ ID NO:07, the N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase (AGE) from B. ovatus with SEQ ID NO:09, the N-acetylneuraminate synthase (NeuB) from N. meningitidis with SEQ ID NO:01, the sucrose transporter (CscB) from E. coli W with SEQ ID NO:23, fructose kinase (Frk) from Z. mobilis with SEQ ID NO:24 and the sucrose phosphorylase from B. adolescentis with SEQ ID NO:25. The thus obtained mutant E. coli strain is further modified with genomic knock-ins and an expression plasmid with constitutive transcriptional units to express three N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase isoproteins consisting of the NeuA enzyme from C. jejuni with SEQ ID NO:03, the NeuA enzyme from H. influenzae with SEQ ID NO:04 and the NeuA enzyme from P. multocida with SEQ ID NO:05, and three copies of the beta-galactoside alpha-2,3-sialyltransferase PmultST3 from P. multocida with SEQ ID NO:17. The novel strain is evaluated in a growth experiment according to the culture conditions provided in Example 2, in which the culture medium contains 30 g/L sucrose and 20 g/L lactose. The strain is grown in four biological replicates in a 96-well plate. After 72 h of incubation, the culture broth is harvested, and the sugars are analyzed on UPLC.

Example 8. Production of 3′-Sialyllactose (3′-SL) with a Modified E. coli Strain

[0508] An E. coli K-12 strain MG1655 was modified for sialic acid and 3′-siayllactose production as described in Example 2 comprising knock-outs of the E. coli nagA, nagB, nanA, nanT, nanE, nanK, LacZ, LacY and LacA genes and genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units containing the lactose permease (LacY) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:22, the sialic acid transporter (nanT) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:08, two copies of the L-glutamine D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase (glmS*54) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:06, two copies of the glucosamine 6-phosphate N-acetyltransferase (GNA1) from S. cerevisiae with SEQ ID NO:07, the N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase (AGE) from B. ovatus with SEQ ID NO:09, the N-acetylneuraminate synthase (NeuB) from N. meningitidis with SEQ ID NO:01, the sucrose transporter (CscB) from E. coli W with SEQ ID NO:23, fructose kinase (Frk) from Z. mobilis with SEQ ID NO:24 and the sucrose phosphorylase from B. adolescentis with SEQ ID NO:25. The thus obtained mutant E. coli strain was further modified with genomic knock-ins with constitutive transcriptional units to express two copies of the N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase NeuA from P. multocida with SEQ ID NO:05 and two copies of the beta-galactoside alpha-2,3-sialyltransferase PmultST3 from P. multocida with SEQ ID NO:17. The novel strain was evaluated in a growth experiment according to the culture conditions provided in Example 2, in which the culture medium contained 30 g/L sucrose and 20 g/L lactose. The strain was grown in four biological replicates in a 96-well plate. After 72 h of incubation, the culture broth was harvested, and the sugars were analyzed on UPLC. The experiment demonstrated the novel strain produced 0.64 g/L 3′-SL and did not suffer from any genomic or plasmid DNA instability or reorganization during cultivation.

Example 9. Evaluation of Mutant E. coli 6′-SL Production Strains in Fed-Batch Fermentations

[0509] The mutant E. coli strains as described in Examples 4 and 6 were evaluated in a fed-batch fermentation process. Fed-batch fermentations at bioreactor scale were performed as described in Example 2. Sucrose was used as a carbon source and lactose was added in the batch medium as a precursor. No sialic acid (Neu5Ac) was added to the fermentation process. In contrast to the cultivation experiments that are described herein and wherein only end samples were taken at the end of cultivation (i.e., 72 hours as described herein), regular broth samples were taken at several time points during the fermentation process and the production of sialic acid (Neu5Ac) and 6′-sialyllactose at each of the time points was measured using UPLC as described in Example 2. The experiment demonstrated that broth samples taken e.g., at the end of the batch phase and during fed-batch phase comprised sialic acid production together with 6′-sialyllactose and unmodified lactose. Broth samples taken at the end of the fed-batch phase comprised 6′-sialyllactose and almost no or a very low concentration of Neu5Ac and almost no or a very low concentration of unmodified lactose demonstrating almost all or all of the precursor lactose was modified with almost all or all Neu5Ac produced during the fermentation of the mutant cells producing 6′-SL. The experiment further showed the mutant strains did not suffer from any genomic or plasmid DNA instability or reorganization during cultivation.

Example 10. Evaluation of Mutant E. coli 3′-SL Production Strains in Fed-Batch Fermentations

[0510] The mutant E. coli strains as described in Examples 5, 7 and 8 are evaluated in a fed-batch fermentation process. Fed-batch fermentations at bioreactor scale are performed as described in Example 2. Sucrose is used as a carbon source and lactose is added in the batch medium as a precursor. No sialic acid (Neu5Ac) is added to the fermentation process. In contrast to the cultivation experiments that are described herein and wherein only end samples were taken at the end of cultivation (i.e., 72 hours as described herein), regular broth samples are taken at several time points during the fermentation process and the production of sialic acid (Neu5Ac) and 3′-sialyllactose at each of the time points is measured using UPLC as described in Example 2.

Example 11. Production of an Oligosaccharide Mixture Comprising 6′-SL, LN3, Sialylated LN3, LNnT and LSTc with a Modified E. coli Host

[0511] An E. coli host modified for sialic acid production (Neu5Ac) and 6′-siayllactose as described in Example 6 is further modified with genomic knock-ins comprising constitutive transcriptional units of the galactoside beta-1,3-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase (LgtA) from N. meningitidis with SEQ ID NO:36 and the N-acetylglucosamine beta-1,4-galactosyltransferase (LgtB) from N. meningitidis with SEQ ID NO:38 to produce a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 6′-SL, LN3, LNnT and LSTc (Neu5Ac-a2,6-Gal-b1,4-GlcNAc-b1,3-Gal-b1,4-Glc). The novel strain is evaluated in a growth experiment according to the culture conditions provided in Example 2, in which the culture medium contains sucrose and lactose. The strain is grown in four biological replicates in a 96-well plate. After 72 h of incubation, the culture broth is harvested, and the sugars are analyzed on UPLC.

Example 12. Production of an Oligosaccharide Mixture LN3, Sialylated LN3, LNT, 3′-SL and LSTa with a Modified E. coli Host

[0512] An E. coli host modified for sialic acid production (Neu5Ac) and 3′-siayllactose as described in Example 8 is further modified with genomic knock-ins comprising constitutive transcriptional units of the galactoside beta-1,3-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase (LgtA) from N. meningitidis with SEQ ID NO:36 and the N-acetylglucosamine beta-1,3-galactosyltransferase (wbgO) from E. coli 055:H7 with SEQ ID NO:37 to produce a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising LN3, 3′-sialylated LN3 (Neu5Ac-a2,3-GlcNAc-b1,3-Gal-b1,4-Glc), LNT, 3′-SL and LSTa (Neu5Ac-a2,3-Gal-b1,3-GlcNAc-b1,3-Gal-b1,4-Glc). The novel strain is evaluated in a growth experiment according to the culture conditions provided in Example 2, in which the culture medium contains sucrose and lactose. The strain is grown in four biological replicates in a 96-well plate. After 72 h of incubation, the culture broth is harvested, and the sugars are analyzed on UPLC.

Example 13. Production of an Oligosaccharide Mixture Comprising LN3, Sialylated LN3, LNnT, 3′-SL and LSTd with a Modified E. coli Host

[0513] An E. coli host modified for sialic acid production (Neu5Ac) and 3′-siayllactose as described in Example 8 is further modified with genomic knock-ins comprising constitutive transcriptional units of the galactoside beta-1,3-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase (LgtA) from N. meningitidis with SEQ ID NO:36 and the N-acetylglucosamine beta-1,4-galactosyltransferase (LgtB) from N. meningitidis with SEQ ID NO:38 to produce a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 3′-SL, LN3, 3′-sialylated LN3 (Neu5Ac-a2,3-GlcNAc-b1,3-Gal-b1,4-Glc), LNnT and LSTd (Neu5Ac-a2,3-Gal-b1,4-GlcNAc-b1,3-Gal-b1,4-Glc). The novel strain is evaluated in a growth experiment according to the culture conditions provided in Example 2, in which the culture medium contains sucrose and lactose. The strain is grown in four biological replicates in a 96-well plate. After 72 h of incubation, the culture broth is harvested, and the sugars are analyzed on UPLC.

Example 14. Production of 6′-Sialyllactose (6′-SL) with a Modified E. coli Strain

[0514] An E. coli K-12 strain MG1655 was modified for sialic acid and 6′-siayllactose production as described in Example 2 comprising knock-outs of the E. coli nagA, nagB, nanA, nanT, nanE, nanK, LacZ, LacY and LacA genes and genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units containing the lactose permease (LacY) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:22, the sialic acid transporter (nanT) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:08, two copies of the L-glutamine D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase (glmS*54) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:06, the phosphoglucosamine mutase (glmM) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:10, the N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate uridyltransferase/glucosamine-1-phosphate acetyltransferase (glmU) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:11, the UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase (NeuC) from C. jejuni with SEQ ID NO:12, the N-acetylneuraminate synthase (NeuB) from meningitides with SEQ ID NO:01, the sucrose transporter (CscB) from E. coli W with SEQ ID NO:23, fructose kinase (Frk) from Z mobilis with SEQ ID NO:24 and the sucrose phosphorylase from B. adolescentis with SEQ ID NO:25. The thus obtained mutant E. coli strain was further modified with genomic knock-ins and an expression plasmid with constitutive transcriptional units to express three N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase isoproteins consisting of the NeuA enzyme from C. jejuni with SEQ ID NO:03, the NeuA enzyme from H. influenzae with SEQ ID NO:04 and the NeuA enzyme from P. multocida with SEQ ID NO:05, and three copies of the beta-galactoside alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase PdbST from P. damselae with SEQ ID NO: 19. The novel strain is evaluated in a growth experiment according to the culture conditions provided in Example 2, in which the culture medium contains 30 g/L sucrose and 20 g/L lactose. The strain is grown in four biological replicates in a 96-well plate. After 72 h of incubation, the culture broth is harvested, and the sugars are analyzed on UPLC.

Example 15. Production of 6′-Sialyllactose (6′-SL) with a Modified E. coli Strain

[0515] An E. coli K-12 strain MG1655 was modified for sialic acid and 6′-siayllactose production as described in Example 2 comprising knock-outs of the E. coli nagA, nagB, nanA, nanT, nanE, nanK, LacZ, LacY and LacA genes and genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units containing the lactose permease (LacY) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:22, the sialic acid transporter (nanT) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:08, two copies of the L-glutamine D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase (glmS*54) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:06, the phosphoglucosamine mutase (glmM) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:10, the N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate uridyltransferase/glucosamine-1-phosphate acetyltransferase (glmU) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:11, the bifunctional UDP-GlcNAc 2-epimerase/N-acetylmannosamine kinase from M. musculus (strain C57BL/6J) with SEQ ID NO:13, the N-acylneuraminate-9-phosphate synthetase from Syntrophorhabdus sp. PtaU1.Bin058 with SEQ ID NO:14 and the N-acylneuraminate-9-phosphatase from Candidatus magnetomorum sp. HK-1 with SEQ ID NO:15, the sucrose transporter (CscB) from E. coli W with SEQ ID NO:23, fructose kinase (Frk) from Z. mobilis with SEQ ID NO:24 and the sucrose phosphorylase from B. adolescentis with SEQ ID NO:25. The thus obtained mutant E. coli strain was further modified with genomic knock-ins and an expression plasmid with constitutive transcriptional units to express three N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase isoproteins consisting of the NeuA enzyme from C. jejuni with SEQ ID NO:03, the NeuA enzyme from H. influenzae with SEQ ID NO:04 and the NeuA enzyme from P. multocida with SEQ ID NO:05, and three copies of the beta-galactoside alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase PdbST from P. damselae with SEQ ID NO: 19. The novel strain is evaluated in a growth experiment according to the culture conditions provided in Example 2, in which the culture medium contains 30 g/L sucrose and 20 g/L lactose. The strain is grown in four biological replicates in a 96-well plate. After 72 h of incubation, the culture broth is harvested, and the sugars are analyzed on UPLC.

Example 16. Production of 6′-Sialyllactose (6′-SL) with a Modified S. cerevisiae Strain

[0516] An S. cerevisiae strain is adapted for sialic acid (Neu5Ac) and sialylated lactose production as described in Example 3 with a pRS420-derived yeast expression plasmid comprising the TRP1 selection marker and constitutive transcriptional units for two copies of the L-glutamine D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase (glmS*54) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:06, a phosphatase like any one or more of e.g., the E. coli genes comprising aphA, Cof, HisB, OtsB, SurE, Yaed, YcjU, YedP, YfbT, YidA, YigB, YihX, YniC, YqaB, YrbL, AppA, Gph, SerB, YbhA, YbiV, YbjL, Yfb, YieH, YjgL, YjjG, YrfG and YbiU or PsMupP from P. putida, ScDOG1 from S. cerevisiae and BsAraL from B. subtilis as described in WO 2018122225, the N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase (AGE) from B. ovatus with SEQ ID NO:09, the N-acetylneuraminate synthase (NeuB) from N. meningitidis with SEQ ID NO:01, three N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase isoproteins consisting of the NeuA enzyme from C. jejuni with SEQ ID NO:03, the NeuA enzyme from H. influenzae with SEQ ID NO:04 and the NeuA enzyme from P. multocida with SEQ ID NO:05, three copies of the beta-galactoside alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase PdbST from P. damselae with SEQ ID NO:19 and the lactose permease (LAC12) from K. lactis with SEQ ID NO:40. The novel strain is evaluated in a growth experiment on SD CSM-Trp drop-out medium comprising lactose as precursor according to the culture conditions provided in Example 3. After 72 h of incubation, the culture broth is harvested, and the sugars are analyzed on UPLC.

Example 17. Production of an Oligosaccharide Mixture Comprising 6′-SL, LN3, Sialylated LN3, LNnT and LSTc with a Modified S. cerevisiae Host

[0517] The mutant S. cerevisiae strain described in Example 16 is further modified with a second pRS420-derived yeast expression plasmid comprising the HIS3 selection marker and constitutive transcriptional units for galE from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:39, the galactoside beta-1,3-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase (lgtA) from N. meningitidis with SEQ ID NO:36 and the N-acetylglucosamine beta-1,4-galactosyltransferase (lgtB) from N. meningitidis with SEQ ID NO:38 to produce a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 6′-SL, LN3, LNnT and LSTc (Neu5Ac-a2,6-Gal-b1,4-GlcNAc-b1,3-Gal-b1,4-Glc). The novel strain is evaluated in a growth experiment on SD CSM-Trp-His drop-out medium comprising lactose as precursor according to the culture conditions provided in Example 3. After 72 h of incubation, the culture broth is harvested, and the sugars are analyzed on UPLC.

Example 18. Production of 3′-Sialyllactose (3′-SL) with a Modified S. cerevisiae Strain

[0518] An S. cerevisiae strain is adapted for sialic acid (Neu5Ac) and sialylated lactose production as described in Example 3 with a pRS420-derived yeast expression plasmid comprising the TRP1 selection marker and constitutive transcriptional units for two copies of the L-glutamine D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase (glmS*54) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:06, a phosphatase like any one or more of e.g., the E. coli genes comprising aphA, Cof, HisB, OtsB, SurE, Yaed, YcjU, YedP, YfbT, YidA, YigB, YihX, YniC, YqaB, YrbL, AppA, Gph, SerB, YbhA, YbiV, YbjL, Yfb, YieH, YjgL, YjjG, YrfG and YbiU or PsMupP from P. putida, ScDOG1 from S. cerevisiae and BsAraL from B. subtilis as described in WO 2018122225, the N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase (AGE) from B. ovatus with SEQ ID NO:09, the N-acetylneuraminate synthase (NeuB) from N. meningitidis with SEQ ID NO:01, three N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase isoproteins consisting of the NeuA enzyme from C. jejuni with SEQ ID NO:03, the NeuA enzyme from H. influenzae with SEQ ID NO:04 and the NeuA enzyme from P. multocida with SEQ ID NO:05, three copies of the beta-galactoside alpha-2,3-sialyltransferase PmultST3 from P. multocida with SEQ ID NO:17 and the lactose permease (LAC12) from K. lactis with SEQ ID NO:40. The novel strain is evaluated in a growth experiment on SD CSM-Trp drop-out medium comprising lactose as precursor according to the culture conditions provided in Example 3. After 72 h of incubation, the culture broth is harvested, and the sugars are analyzed on UPLC.

Example 19. Production of an Oligosaccharide Mixture Comprising LN3, Sialylated LN3, LNT, 3′-SL and LSTa with a Modified S. cerevisiae Host

[0519] The mutant S. cerevisiae strain described in Example 18 is further modified with a second pRS420-derived yeast expression plasmid comprising the HIS3 selection marker and constitutive transcriptional units for galE from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:39, the galactoside beta-1,3-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase (lgtA) from N. meningitidis with SEQ ID NO:36 and the N-acetylglucosamine beta-1,3-galactosyltransferase (wbgO) from E. coli 055:H7 with SEQ ID NO:37 to produce a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising LN3, 3′-sialylated LN3 (Neu5Ac-a2,3-GlcNAc-b1,3-Gal-b1,4-Glc), LNT, 3′-SL and LSTa (Neu5Ac-a2,3-Gal-b1,3-GlcNAc-b1,3-Gal-b1,4-Glc). The novel strain is evaluated in a growth experiment on SD CSM-Trp-His drop-out medium comprising lactose as precursor according to the culture conditions provided in Example 3. After 72 h of incubation, the culture broth is harvested, and the sugars are analyzed on UPLC.

Example 20. Production of an Oligosaccharide Mixture Comprising LN3, Sialylated LN3, LNnT, 3′-SL and LSTd with a Modified S. cerevisiae Host

[0520] The mutant S. cerevisiae strain described in Example 18 is further modified with a second pRS420-derived yeast expression plasmid comprising the HIS3 selection marker and constitutive transcriptional units for galE from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:39, the galactoside beta-1,3-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase (lgtA) from N. meningitidis with SEQ ID NO:36 and the N-acetylglucosamine beta-1,4-galactosyltransferase (lgtB) from N. meningitidis with SEQ ID NO:38 to produce a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 3′-SL, LN3, 3′-sialylated LN3 (Neu5Ac-a2,3-GlcNAc-b1,3-Gal-b1,4-Glc), LNnT and LSTd (Neu5Ac-a2,3-Gal-b1,4-GlcNAc-b1,3-Gal-b1,4-Glc). The novel strain is evaluated in a growth experiment on SD CSM-Trp-His drop-out medium comprising lactose as precursor according to the culture conditions provided in Example 3. After 72 h of incubation, the culture broth is harvested, and the sugars are analyzed on UPLC.

Example 21. Production of 6′-Sialyllactose (6′-SL) with a Modified E. coli Strain

[0521] In a first step, an E. coli K-12 strain MG1655 is modified as described in Example 2 comprising knock-outs of the E. coli nagA, nagB, nanA, nanT, nanE, nanK, LacZ, LacY and LacA genes and with genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units containing the lactose permease (LacY) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:22, the sialic acid transporter (nanT) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:08, two copies of the L-glutamine D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase (glmS*54) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:06, two copies of the glucosamine 6-phosphate N-acetyltransferase (GNA1) from S. cerevisiae with SEQ ID NO:07, the N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase (AGE) from B. ovatus with SEQ ID NO:09, the N-acetylneuraminate synthase (NeuB) from N. meningitidis with SEQ ID NO:01, the acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase (acs) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:47, the sucrose transporter (CscB) from E. coli W with SEQ ID NO:23, fructose kinase (Frk) from Z. mobilis with SEQ ID NO:24, the sucrose phosphorylase from B. adolescentis with SEQ ID NO:25 and two copies of the membrane transporter protein entS from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:49. The thus obtained mutant E. coli strain is further modified with genomic knock-ins and an expression plasmid with constitutive transcriptional units to express three N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase isoproteins consisting of the NeuA enzyme from C. jejuni with SEQ ID NO:03, the NeuA enzyme from H. influenzae with SEQ ID NO:04 and the NeuA enzyme from P. multocida with SEQ ID NO:05, and three copies of the beta-galactoside alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase PdbST from P. damselae with SEQ ID NO:19. The novel strain is evaluated in a growth experiment according to the culture conditions provided in Example 2, in which the culture medium contains 30 g/L sucrose and 20 g/L lactose. The strain is grown in four biological replicates in a 96-well plate. After 72 h of incubation, the culture broth is harvested, and the sugars are analyzed on UPLC.

Example 22. Production of 6′-Sialyllactose (6′-SL) with a Modified E. coli Strain

[0522] In a first step, an E. coli K-12 strain MG1655 is modified as described in Example 2 comprising knock-outs of the E. coli nagA, nagB, nanA, nanT, nanE, nanK, LacZ, LacY and LacA genes and with genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units containing the lactose permease (LacY) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:22, the sialic acid transporter (nanT) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:08, two copies of the L-glutamine D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase (glmS*54) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:06, two copies of the glucosamine 6-phosphate N-acetyltransferase (GNA1) from S. cerevisiae with SEQ ID NO:07, the N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase (AGE) from B. ovatus with SEQ ID NO:09, the N-acetylneuraminate synthase (NeuB) from N. meningitidis with SEQ ID NO:01, the acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase (acs) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:47, the sucrose transporter (CscB) from E. col W with SEQ ID NO:23, fructose kinase (Frk) from Z. mobilis with SEQ ID NO:24, the sucrose phosphorylase from B. adolescentis with SEQ ID NO:25, the membrane transporter protein MdfA from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:50 and two copies of the membrane transporter protein entS from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:49. The thus obtained mutant E. coli strain is further modified with genomic knock-ins and an expression plasmid with constitutive transcriptional units to express three N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase isoproteins consisting of the NeuA enzyme from C. jejuni with SEQ ID NO:03, the NeuA enzyme from H. influenzae with SEQ ID NO:04 and the NeuA enzyme from P. multocida with SEQ ID NO:05, and three copies of the beta-galactoside alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase PdbST from P. damselae with SEQ ID NO: 19. The novel strain is evaluated in a growth experiment according to the culture conditions provided in Example 2, in which the culture medium contains 30 g/L sucrose and 20 g/L lactose. The strain is grown in four biological replicates in a 96-well plate. After 72 h of incubation, the culture broth is harvested, and the sugars are analyzed on UPLC.

Example 23. Production of 3′-Sialyllactose (3′-SL) with a Modified E. coli Strain

[0523] In a first step, an E. coli K-12 strain MG1655 is modified as described in Example 2 comprising knock-outs of the E. coli nagA, nagB, nanA, nanT, nanE, nanK, LacZ, LacY and LacA genes and with genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units containing the lactose permease (LacY) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:22, the sialic acid transporter (nanT) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:08, two copies of the L-glutamine D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase (glmS*54) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:06, two copies of the glucosamine 6-phosphate N-acetyltransferase (GNA1) from S. cerevisiae with SEQ ID NO:07, the N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase (AGE) from B. ovatus with SEQ ID NO:09, the N-acetylneuraminate synthase (NeuB) from N. meningitidis with SEQ ID NO:01, the acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase (acs) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:47, the sucrose transporter (CscB) from E. coli W with SEQ ID NO:23, fructose kinase (Frk) from Z. mobilis with SEQ ID NO:24, the sucrose phosphorylase from B. adolescentis with SEQ ID NO:25, two copies of the membrane transporter protein MdfA from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:50 and two copies of the membrane transporter protein entS from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:49. The thus obtained mutant E. coli strain is further modified with genomic knock-ins and an expression plasmid with constitutive transcriptional units to express three N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase isoproteins consisting of the NeuA enzyme from C. jejuni with SEQ ID NO:03, the NeuA enzyme from H. influenzae with SEQ ID NO:04 and the NeuA enzyme from P. multocida with SEQ ID NO:05, and three copies of the beta-galactoside alpha-2,3-sialyltransferase from P. multocida subsp. multocida str. Pm70 with SEQ ID NO:48. The novel strain is evaluated in a growth experiment according to the culture conditions provided in Example 2, in which the culture medium contains 30 g/L sucrose and 20 g/L lactose. The strain is grown in four biological replicates in a 96-well plate. After 72 h of incubation, the culture broth is harvested, and the sugars are analyzed on UPLC.

Example 24. Material and Methods Bacillus subtilis

[0524] Media

[0525] Two different media are used, namely a rich Luria Broth (LB) and a minimal medium for shake flask (MMsf). The minimal medium uses a trace element mix.

[0526] Trace element mix consisted of 0.735 g/L CaCl.sub.2).Math.2H.sub.2O, 0.1 g/L MnCal.sub.2.Math.2H.sub.2O, 0.033 g/L CuCl.sub.2.Math.2H.sub.2O, 0.06 g/L COCl.sub.2.Math.6H.sub.2O, 0.17 g/L ZnCl.sub.2, 0.0311 g/L H.sub.3BO.sub.4, 0.4 g/L Na.sub.2EDTA.Math.2H.sub.2O and 0.06 g/L Na.sub.2MoO.sub.4. The Fe-citrate solution contained 0.135 g/L FeCl.sub.3.Math.6H.sub.2O, 1 g/L Na-citrate (Hoch 1973 PMC1212887).

[0527] The Luria Broth (LB) medium consisted of 1% tryptone peptone (Difco, Erembodegem, Belgium), 0.5% yeast extract (Difco) and 0.5% sodium chloride (VWR. Leuven, Belgium). Luria Broth agar (LBA) plates consisted of the LB media, with 12 g/L agar (Difco, Erembodegem, Belgium) added.

[0528] The minimal medium for the shake flasks (MMsf) experiments contained 2.00 g/L (NH.sub.4).sub.2SO.sub.4, 7.5 g/L KH.sub.2PO.sub.4, 17.5 g/L K.sub.2HPO.sub.4, 1.25 g/L Na-citrate, 0.25 g/L MgSO.sub.4.Math.7H.sub.2O, 0.05 g/L tryptophan, from 10 up to 30 g/L glucose or another carbon source including but not limited to fructose, maltose, sucrose, glycerol and maltotriose when specified in the examples, 10 ml/L trace element mix and 10 ml/L Fe-citrate solution. The medium was set to a pH of 7 with 1M KOH. Depending on the experiment lactose, LNB or LacNAc could be added.

[0529] Complex medium, e.g., LB, was sterilized by autoclaving (121° C., 21′) and minimal medium by filtration (0.22 μm Sartorius). When necessary, the medium was made selective by adding an antibiotic (e.g., zeocin (20 mg/L)).

[0530] Strains, Plasmids and Mutations

[0531] Bacillus subtilis 168, available at Bacillus Genetic Stock Center (Ohio, USA).

[0532] Plasmids for gene deletion via Cre/lox are constructed as described by Yan et al. (Appl. & Environm. Microbial., September 2008, p5556-5562). Gene disruption is done via homologous recombination with linear DNA and transformation via electroporation as described by Xue et al. (J. Microb. Meth. 34 (1999) 183-191). The method of gene knockouts is described by Liu et al. (Metab. Engine. 24 (2014) 61-69). This method uses 1000 bp homologies up- and downstream of the target gene.

[0533] Integrative vectors as described by Popp et al. (Sci. Rep., 2017, 7, 15158) are used as expression vector and could be further used for genomic integrations if necessary. A suitable promoter for expression can be derived from the part repository (iGem): sequence id: Bba_K143012, Bba_K823000, Bba_K823002 or Bba_K823003. Cloning can be performed using Gibson Assembly, Golden Gate assembly, Cliva assembly, LCR or restriction ligation.

[0534] In an example for the production of lactose-based oligosaccharides, Bacillus subtilis mutant strains are created to contain a gene coding for a lactose importer (such as the E. coli lacY with SEQ ID NO:22). In an example for 2′FL, 3FL and/or diFL production, an alpha-1,2- and/or alpha-1,3-fucosyltransferase expression construct is additionally added to the strains. In an example for LN3 production, a constitutive transcriptional unit comprising a galactoside beta-1,3-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase like e.g., lgtA from N. meningitidis (SEQ ID NO:236) is additionally added to the strain. In an example for LNT production, the LN3 producing strain is further modified with a constitutive transcriptional unit comprising an N-acetylglucosamine beta-1,3-galactosyltransferase like e.g., WbgO from E. coli 055:H.sub.7 (SEQ ID NO:37). In an example for LNnT production, the LN3 producing strain is further modified with a constitutive transcriptional unit comprising an N-acetylglucosamine beta-1,4-galactosyltransferase like e.g., lgtB from N. meningitidis (SEQ ID NO:38).

[0535] In an example for sialic acid production, a mutant B. subtilis strain is created by overexpressing a fructose-6-P-aminotransferase like the native fructose-6-P-aminotransferase (UniProt ID P0CI73) to enhance the intracellular glucosamine-6-phosphate pool. Further on, the enzymatic activities of the genes nagA, nagB and gamA are disrupted by genetic knockouts and one or two copies of a glucosamine-6-P-aminotransferase like e.g., from S. cerevisiae (SEQ ID NO:07), an N-acetylglucosamine-2-epimerase like e.g., from B. ovatus (SEQ ID NO:09) and one or more N-acetylneuraminate synthases like e.g., from N. meningitidis (SEQ ID NO:01), C. jejuni (SEQ ID NO:02) are overexpressed on the genome. To allow sialylated oligosaccharide production, the sialic acid producing strain is further modified with a constitutive transcriptional unit comprising an N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase like e.g., the NeuA enzyme from C. jejuni (SEQ ID NO:03), H. influenzae (SEQ ID NO:04) and P. multocida (SEQ ID NO:05), and one or more copies of a beta-galactoside alpha-2,3-sialyltransferase like e.g., PmultST3 from P. multocida (UniProt ID Q9CLP3) or a PmultST3-like polypeptide consisting of amino acid residues 1 to 268 of UniProt ID Q9CLP3 having beta-galactoside alpha-2,3-sialyltransferase activity (SEQ ID NO:17), or NmeniST3 from N. meningitidis (SEQ ID NO:18) or PmultST2 from P. multocida subsp. multocida str. Pm70 (GenBank No. AAK02592.1), a beta-galactoside alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase like e.g., PdST6 from Photobacterium damselae (UniProt ID 066375) or a PdST6-like polypeptide consisting of amino acid residues 108 to 497 of UniProt ID 066375 having beta-galactoside alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase activity (SEQ ID NO:19) or P-JT-ISH-224-ST6 from Photobacterium sp. JT-ISH-224 (UniProt ID A8QYL1) or a P-JT-ISH-224-ST6-like polypeptide consisting of amino acid residues 18 to 514 of UniProt ID A8QYL1 having beta-galactoside alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase activity (SEQ ID NO:20), and/or an alpha-2,8-sialyltransferase like e.g., from M. musculus (SEQ ID NO:21).

[0536] Heterologous and Homologous Expression

[0537] Genes that needed to be expressed, be it from a plasmid or from the genome were synthetically synthetized with one of the following companies: DNA2.0, Gen9, Twist Biosciences or IDT.

[0538] Expression could be further facilitated by optimizing the codon usage to the codon usage of the expression host. Genes were optimized using the tools of the supplier.

[0539] Cultivation Conditions

[0540] A preculture of 96-well microtiter plate experiments was started from a cryovial or a single colony from an LB plate, in 150 μL LB and was incubated overnight at 37° C. on an orbital shaker at 800 rpm. This culture was used as inoculum for a 96-well square microtiter plate, with 400 μL MMsf medium by diluting 400x. Each strain was grown in multiple wells of the 96-well plate as biological replicates. These final 96-well culture plates were then incubated at 37° C. on an orbital shaker at 800 rpm for 72 h, or shorter, or longer. At the end of the cultivation experiment samples were taken from each well to measure the supernatant concentration (extracellular sugar concentrations, after 5 min. spinning down the cells), or by boiling the culture broth for 15 min at 90° C. or for 60 min at 60° C. before spinning down the cells (=whole broth concentration, intra- and extracellular sugar concentrations, as defined herein).

[0541] Also, a dilution of the cultures was made to measure the optical density at 600 nm. The cell performance index or CPI was determined by dividing the oligosaccharide concentrations by the biomass, in relative percentages compared to a reference strain. The biomass is empirically determined to be approximately ⅓rd of the optical density measured at 600 nm.

Example 25. Production of an Oligosaccharide Mixture Comprising 2′FL, 3-FL, DiFL, 3′SL, 6′SL, 3's-2′FL, 3's-3-FL, 6's-2′FL, 6's-3-FL with a Modified B. subtilis Host

[0542] A B. subtilis strain is modified as described in Example 24 by genomic knock-out of the nagA, nagB, glmS and gamA genes and genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units for the lactose permease (LacY) from E. coli with SEQ ID NO:22, the sucrose transporter (CscB) from E. coli W (SEQ ID NO:23), the fructose kinase (Frk) from Z. mobilis (SEQ ID NO:24), the sucrose phosphorylase (BaSP) from B. adolescentis (SEQ ID NO:25), the native fructose-6-P-aminotransferase (UniProt ID P0CI73), two copies of the glucosamine 6-phosphate N-acetyltransferase GNA1 from S. cerevisiae (SEQ ID NO:07), the mutant L-glutamine D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase (glmS*54) from E. coli (SEQ ID NO:06), a phosphatase like e.g., a phosphatase chosen from the E. coli genes comprising aphA, Cof, HisB, OtsB, SurE, Yaed, YcjU, YedP, YfbT, YidA, YigB, YihX, YniC, YqaB, YrbL, AppA, Gph, SerB, YbhA, YbiV, YbjL, Yfb, YieH, YjgL, YjjG, YrfG and YbiU or PsMupP from P. putida, ScDOG1 from S. cerevisiae or BsAraL from B. subtilis as described in WO 2018122225, the N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase (AGE) from B. ovatus (SEQ ID NO:09), the N-acetylneuraminate synthase (NeuB) from N. meningitidis (SEQ ID NO:01) and the N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferases NeuA from C. jejuni (SEQ ID NO:03), NeuA from H. influenzae (SEQ ID NO:04) and NeuA from P. multocida (SEQ ID NO:05). In a next step, the strain is transformed with an expression plasmid comprising constitutive transcriptional units for three copies of a PmultST3-like polypeptide consisting of amino acid residues 1 to 268 of UniProt ID Q9CLP3 having beta-galactoside alpha-2,3-sialyltransferase activity like SEQ ID NO:17 and three copies of a PdST6-like polypeptide consisting of amino acid residues 108 to 497 of UniProt ID 066375 having beta-galactoside alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase activity (SEQ ID NO:19). In a further step, the mutant strain is transformed with a second compatible expression plasmid comprising constitutive transcriptional units for the alpha-1,2-fucosyltransferase HpFutC with SEQ ID NO:26 and the alpha-1,3-fucosyltransferase HpFucT with SEQ ID NO:27. The novel strain is evaluated for the production of 2′FL, 3-FL, DiFL, 3′SL, 6′SL, 3'S-2′FL, 3'S-3-FL, 6'S-2′FL, 6'S-3-FL in a growth experiment on MMsf medium comprising lactose according to the culture conditions provided in Example 24. After 72 h of incubation, the culture broth is harvested, and the sugars are analyzed on UPLC.

Example 26. Production of an Oligosaccharide Mixture Comprising 3′SL, LN3, LNT, Sialylated LN3 and LSTa with a Modified B. subtilis Host

[0543] A B. subtilis strain is modified for LN3 production and growth on sucrose as described in Example 24 by genomic knock-out of the nagA, nagB, glmS and gamA genes and genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units comprising genes encoding the lactose permease (LacY) from E. coli (SEQ ID NO:22), the native fructose-6-P-aminotransferase (UniProt ID P0CI73), the galactoside beta-1,3-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase LgtA from N. meningitidis (SEQ ID NO:36), the sucrose transporter (CscB) from E. coli W (SEQ ID NO:23), the fructose kinase (Frk) from Z. mobilis (SEQ ID NO:24) and the sucrose phosphorylase (BaSP) from B. adolescentis (SEQ ID NO:25). In a next step, the mutant strain is further modified with a genomic knock-in of a constitutive transcriptional unit comprising the N-acetylglucosamine beta-1,3-galactosyltransferase WbgO from E. coli 055:H.sub.7 (SEQ ID NO:37) to produce LNT. The mutant B. subtilis strain is further modified with genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units comprising two copies of the glucosamine 6-phosphate N-acetyltransferase GNA1 from S. cerevisiae (SEQ ID NO:07), two copies of the mutant L-glutamine D-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase (glmS*54) from E. coli (SEQ ID NO:06), a phosphatase like e.g., a phosphatase chosen from the E. coli genes comprising aphA, Cof, HisB, OtsB, SurE, Yaed, YcjU, YedP, YfbT, YidA, YigB, YihX, YniC, YqaB, YrbL, AppA, Gph, SerB, YbhA, YbiV, YbjL, Yfb, YieH, YjgL, YjjG, YrfG and YbiU or PsMupP from P. putida, ScDOG1 from S. cerevisiae or BsAraL from B. subtilis as described in WO 2018122225, the N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase (AGE) from B. ovatus (SEQ ID NO:09), the N-acetylneuraminate synthase (NeuB) from N. meningitidis (SEQ ID NO:01), the N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferases NeuA from C. jejuni (SEQ ID NO:03), NeuA from H. influenzae (SEQ ID NO:04) and NeuA from P. multocida (SEQ ID NO:05) and three copies of a PmultST3-like polypeptide consisting of amino acid residues 1 to 268 of UniProt ID Q9CLP3 having beta-galactoside alpha-2,3-sialyltransferase activity like SEQ ID NO:17. The novel strain is evaluated for the production of a mixture comprising 3′SL, LN3, sialylated LN3, LNT, and LSTa (Neu5Ac-a2,3-Gal-b1,3-GlcNAc-b1,3-Gal-b1,4-Glc) in a growth experiment on MMsf medium comprising lactose as precursor according to the culture conditions provided in Example 24. After 72 h of incubation, the culture broth is harvested, and the sugars are analyzed on UPLC.

Example 27. Material and Methods Corynebacterium glutamicum

[0544] Media

[0545] Two different media are used, namely a rich tryptone-yeast extract (TY) medium and a minimal medium for shake flask (MMsf). The minimal medium uses a 1000× stock trace element mix.

[0546] Trace element mix consisted of 10 g/L CaCl.sub.2), 10 g/L FeSO.sub.4.Math.7H.sub.2O, 10 g/L MnSO.sub.4.Math.H.sub.2O, 1 g/L ZnSO.sub.4.Math.7H.sub.2O, 0.2 g/L CuSO.sub.4, 0.02 g/L NiCl.sub.2.Math.6H.sub.2O, 0.2 g/L biotin (pH 7.0) and 0.03 g/L protocatechuic acid.

[0547] The minimal medium for the shake flasks (MMsf) experiments contained 20 g/L (NH.sub.4).sub.2SO.sub.4, 5 g/L urea, 1 g/L KH.sub.2PO.sub.4, 1 g/L K.sub.2HPO.sub.4, 0.25 g/L MgSO.sub.4.Math.7H.sub.2O, 42 g/L MOPS, from 10 up to 30 g/L glucose or another carbon source including but not limited to fructose, maltose, sucrose, glycerol and maltotriose when specified in the examples and 1 ml/L trace element mix. Depending on the experiment lactose, LNB, and/or LacNAc could be added to the medium.

[0548] The TY medium consisted of 1.6% tryptone (Difco, Erembodegem, Belgium), 1% yeast extract (Difco) and 0.5% sodium chloride (VWR. Leuven, Belgium). TY agar (TYA) plates consisted of the TY media, with 12 g/L agar (Difco, Erembodegem, Belgium) added.

[0549] Complex medium, e.g., TY, was sterilized by autoclaving (121° C., 21′) and minimal medium by filtration (0.22 μm Sartorius). When necessary, the medium was made selective by adding an antibiotic (e.g., kanamycin, ampicillin).

[0550] Strains and Mutations

[0551] Corynebacterium glutamicum ATCC 13032, available at the American Type Culture Collection.

[0552] Integrative plasmid vectors based on the Cre/loxP technique as described by Suzuki et al. (Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 2005 Apr., 67(2):225-33) and temperature-sensitive shuttle vectors as described by Okibe et al. (Journal of Microbiological Methods 85, 2011, 155-163) are constructed for gene deletions, mutations and insertions. Suitable promoters for (heterologous) gene expression can be derived from Yim et al. (Biotechnol. Bioeng., 2013 November, 110(11):2959-69). Cloning can be performed using Gibson Assembly, Golden Gate assembly, Cliva assembly, LCR or restriction ligation.

[0553] In an example for the production of lactose-based oligosaccharides, C. glutamicum mutant strains are created to contain a gene coding for a lactose importer (such as e.g., the E. coli lacY with SEQ ID NO:22). In an example for 2′FL, 3FL and/or diFL production, an alpha-1,2- and/or alpha-1,3-fucosyltransferase expression construct is additionally added to the strains.

[0554] In an example for LN3 production, a constitutive transcriptional unit comprising a galactoside beta-1,3-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase like e.g., lgtA from N. meningitidis (SEQ ID NO:36) is additionally added to the strain. In an example for LNT production, the LN3 producing strain is further modified with a constitutive transcriptional unit comprising an N-acetylglucosamine beta-1,3-galactosyltransferase like e.g., WbgO from E. coli 055:H.sub.7 (SEQ ID NO:37). In an example for LNnT production, the LN3 producing strain is further modified with a constitutive transcriptional unit comprising an N-acetylglucosamine beta-1,4-galactosyltransferase like e.g., lgtB from N. meningitidis (SEQ ID NO:38).

[0555] In an example for sialic acid production, a mutant C. glutamicum strain is created by overexpressing a fructose-6-P-aminotransferase like the native fructose-6-P-aminotransferase (UniProt ID Q8NND3) to enhance the intracellular glucosamine-6-phosphate pool. Further on, the enzymatic activities of the genes nagA, nagB and gamA are disrupted by genetic knockouts and one or two copies of a glucosamine-6-P-aminotransferase like e.g., from S. cerevisiae (SEQ ID NO:07), an N-acetylglucosamine-2-epimerase like e.g., from B. ovatus (SEQ ID NO:09) and an N-acetylneuraminate synthase like e.g., from N. meningitidis (SEQ ID NO:01) are overexpressed on the genome. To allow sialylated oligosaccharide production, the sialic acid producing strain is further modified with a constitutive transcriptional unit comprising two or more N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferases like e.g., the NeuA from C. jejuni (SEQ ID NO:03), NeuA from H. influenzae (SEQ ID NO:04) and NeuA enzyme from P. multocida (SEQ ID NO:05), and one or more copies of a beta-galactoside alpha-2,3-sialyltransferase like e.g., PmultST3 from P. multocida (UniProt ID Q9CLP3) or a PmultST3-like polypeptide consisting of amino acid residues 1 to 268 of UniProt ID Q9CLP3 having beta-galactoside alpha-2,3-sialyltransferase activity (SEQ ID NO:17), or NmeniST3 from N. meningitidis (SEQ ID NO:18) or PmultST2 from P. multocida subsp. multocida str. Pm70 (GenBank No. AAK02592.1), a beta-galactoside alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase like e.g., PdST6 from Photobacterium damselae (UniProt ID 066375) or a PdST6-like polypeptide consisting of amino acid residues 108 to 497 of UniProt ID 066375 having beta-galactoside alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase activity (SEQ ID NO:19) or P-JT-ISH-224-ST6 from Photobacterium sp. JT-ISH-224 (UniProt ID A8QYL1) or a P-JT-ISH-224-ST6-like polypeptide consisting of amino acid residues 18 to 514 of UniProt ID A8QYL1 having beta-galactoside alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase activity (SEQ ID NO:20), and/or an alpha-2,8-sialyltransferase like e.g., from M. musculus (SEQ ID NO:21).

[0556] Heterologous and Homologous Expression

[0557] Genes that needed to be expressed, be it from a plasmid or from the genome were synthetically synthetized with one of the following companies: DNA2.0, Gen9, Twist Biosciences or IDT.

[0558] Expression could be further facilitated by optimizing the codon usage to the codon usage of the expression host. Genes were optimized using the tools of the supplier.

[0559] Cultivation Conditions

[0560] A preculture of 96-well microtiter plate experiments was started from a cryovial or a single colony from a TY plate, in 150 μL TY and was incubated overnight at 37° C. on an orbital shaker at 800 rpm. This culture was used as inoculum for a 96-well square microtiter plate, with 400 μL MMsf medium by diluting 400x. Each strain was grown in multiple wells of the 96-well plate as biological replicates. These final 96-well culture plates were then incubated at 37° C. on an orbital shaker at 800 rpm for 72 h, or shorter, or longer. At the end of the cultivation experiment samples were taken from each well to measure the supernatant concentration (extracellular sugar concentrations, after 5 min. spinning down the cells), or by boiling the culture broth for 15 min at 60° C. before spinning down the cells (=whole broth concentration, intra- and extracellular sugar concentrations, as defined herein).

[0561] Also, a dilution of the cultures was made to measure the optical density at 600 nm. The cell performance index or CPI was determined by dividing the oligosaccharide concentrations, measured in the whole broth by the biomass, in relative percentages compared to the reference strain. The biomass is empirically determined to be approximately ⅓rd of the optical density measured at 600 nm.

Example 28. Production of an Oligosaccharide Mixture Comprising LN3, Sialylated LN3, 6′SL, LNnT and LSTc with a Modified C. glutamicum Host

[0562] A C. glutamicum strain is modified as described in Example 27 for LN3 production and growth on sucrose by genomic knock-out of the ldh, cgl2645, nagB, gamA and nagA genes and genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units comprising genes encoding the lactose permease (LacY) from E. coli (SEQ ID NO:22), the native fructose-6-P-aminotransferase (UniProt ID Q8NND3), the galactoside beta-1,3-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase LgtA from N. meningitidis (SEQ ID NO:36), the sucrose transporter (CscB) from E. coli W (SEQ ID NO:23), the fructose kinase (Frk) from Z. mobilis (SEQ ID NO:24) and the sucrose phosphorylase (BaSP) from B. adolescentis (SEQ ID NO:25). In a next step, the mutant strain is further modified with a genomic knock-in of a constitutive transcriptional unit comprising the N-acetylglucosamine beta-1,4-galactosyltransferase LgtB from N. meningitidis (SEQ ID NO:38) to produce LNnT. In a next step, the mutant strain is further modified with a genomic knock-in of a constitutive transcriptional unit comprising the native fructose-6-P-aminotransferase (UniProt ID Q8NND3), the glucosamine-6-P-aminotransferase from S. cerevisiae (SEQ ID NO:07), the N-acetylglucosamine-2-epimerase from B. ovatus (SEQ ID NO:09), and the N-acetylneuraminate synthase from N. meningitidis (SEQ ID NO:01) to produce sialic acid. In a next step, the novel strain is transformed with an expression plasmid comprising constitutive transcriptional units for the NeuA from C. jejuni (SEQ ID NO:03), NeuA from H. influenzae (SEQ ID NO:04) and NeuA enzyme from P. multocida (SEQ ID NO:05) and the beta-galactoside alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase PdST6 from P. damselae (UniProt ID 066375). The novel strain is evaluated for production of an oligosaccharide mixture comprising LN3, 6′-sialylated LN3 (Neu5Ac-a2,6-(GlcNAc-b1,3)-Gal-b1,4-Glc), 6′SL, LNnT and LSTc in a growth experiment on MMsf medium comprising lactose according to the culture conditions provided in Example 27. After 72 h of incubation, the culture broth is harvested, and the sugars are analyzed on UPLC.

Example 29. Production of an Oligosaccharide Mixture Comprising 3′SL, 6′SL, LNB, 3′-Sialylated LNB and 6′-Sialylated LNB with a Modified C. glutamicum Host

[0563] A C. glutamicum strain is modified as described in Example 27 by genomic knock-out of the ldh, cgl2645, nagB, gamA and nagA genes and genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units comprising genes encoding the lactose permease (LacY) from E. coli (SEQ ID NO:22), WbgO with SEQ ID NO:37 from E. coli 055:H7, galE with SEQ ID NO:39 from E. coli, the native fructose-6-P-aminotransferase (UniProt ID Q8NND3), glmS*54 with SEQ ID NO:06, the glucosamine-6-P-aminotransferase from S. cerevisiae (SEQ ID NO:07), the N-acetylglucosamine-2-epimerase from B. ovatus (SEQ ID NO:09), and the N-acetylneuraminate synthase from N. meningitidis (SEQ ID NO:01). In a next step, the novel strain is transformed with an expression plasmid comprising constitutive transcriptional units for the NeuA enzyme from C. jejuni (SEQ ID NO:03), the NeuA enzyme from H. influenzae (SEQ ID NO:04) and the NeuA enzyme from P. multocida (SEQ ID NO:05), the beta-galactoside alpha-2,3-sialyltransferase PmultST3 from P. multocida (UniProt ID Q9CLP3) and the beta-galactoside alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase PdST6 from P. damselae (UniProt ID 066375). The novel strain is evaluated for production of an oligosaccharide mixture comprising 3′SL, 6′SL, LNB, 3′-sialylated LNB (3′SLNB) and 6′-sialylated LNB (6′SLNB) in a growth experiment on MMsf medium comprising lactose and glucose according to the culture conditions provided in Example 27. After 72 h of incubation, the culture broth is harvested, and the sugars are analyzed on UPLC.

Example 30. Materials and Methods Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

[0564] Media

[0565] C. reinhardtii cells were cultured in Tris-acetate-phosphate (TAP) medium (pH 7.0). The TAP medium uses a 1000× stock Hutner's trace element mix. Hutner's trace element mix consisted of 50 g/L Na.sub.2EDTA.Math.H.sub.2O (Titriplex III), 22 g/L ZnSO.sub.4.Math.7H.sub.2O, 11.4 g/L H.sub.3B03, 5 g/L MnCl.sub.2.Math.4H.sub.2O, 5 g/L FeSO.sub.4.Math.7H.sub.2O, 1.6 g/L COCl.sub.2.Math.6H.sub.2O, 1.6 g/L CuSO.sub.4.Math.5H.sub.2O and 1.1 g/L (NH.sub.4).sub.6MoO.sub.3.

[0566] The TAP medium contained 2.42 g/L Tris (tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane), 25 mg/L salt stock solution, 0.108 g/L K2HPO.sub.4, 0.054 g/L KH.sub.2PO.sub.4 and 1.0 mL/L glacial acetic acid. The salt stock solution consisted of 15 g/L NH.sub.4Cl, 4 g/L MgSO.sub.4.Math.7H.sub.2O and 2 g/L CaCl.sub.2).Math.2H.sub.2O. As precursor(s) and/or acceptor(s) for saccharide synthesis, compounds like e.g., galactose, glucose, fructose, fucose, lactose, LacNAc, LNB could be added. Medium was sterilized by autoclaving (121° C., 21′). For stock cultures on agar slants TAP medium was used containing 1% agar (of purified high strength, 1000 g/cm.sup.2).

[0567] Strains, Plasmids and Mutations

[0568] C. reinhardtii wild-type strains 21 gr (CC-1690, wild-type, mt+), 6145C (CC-1691, wild-type, mt−), CC-125 (137c, wild-type, mt+), CC-124 (137c, wild-type, mt−) as available from Chlamydomonas Resource Center (www.chlamycollection.org), University of Minnesota, U.S.A.

[0569] Expression plasmids originated from pSI103, as available from Chlamydomonas Resource Center. Cloning can be performed using Gibson Assembly, Golden Gate assembly, Cliva assembly, LCR or restriction ligation. Suitable promoters for (heterologous) gene expression can be derived from e.g., Scranton et al. (Algal Res. 2016, 15: 135-142). Targeted gene modification (like gene knock-out or gene replacement) can be carried using the Crispr-Cas technology as described e.g., by Jiang et al. (Eukaryotic Cell 2014, 13(11): 1465-1469).

[0570] Transformation via electroporation was performed as described by Wang et al. (Biosci. Rep. 2019, 39: BSR2018210). Cells were grown in liquid TAP medium under constant aeration and continuous light with a light intensity of 8000 Lx until the cell density reached 1.0-2.0×10.sup.7 cells/mL. Then, the cells were inoculated into fresh liquid TAP medium in a concentration of 1.0×10.sup.6 cells/mL and grown under continuous light for 18-20 h until the cell density reached 4.0×10.sup.6 cells/mL. Next, cells were collected by centrifugation at 1250 g for 5 min at room temperature, washed and resuspended with pre-chilled liquid TAP medium containing 60 mM sorbitol (Sigma, U.S.A.), and iced for 10 min. Then, 250 μL of cell suspension (corresponding to 5.0×10.sup.7 cells) were placed into a pre-chilled 0.4 cm electroporation cuvette with 100 ng plasmid DNA (400 ng/mL). Electroporation was performed with 6 pulses of 500 V each having a pulse length of 4 ms and pulse interval time of 100 ms using a BTX ECM830 electroporation apparatus (1575Ω, 50 μFD). After electroporation, the cuvette was immediately placed on ice for 10 min. Finally, the cell suspension was transferred into a 50 ml conical centrifuge tube containing 10 mL of fresh liquid TAP medium with 60 mM sorbitol for overnight recovery at dim light by slowly shaking. After overnight recovery, cells were recollected and plated with starch embedding method onto selective 1.5% (w/v) agar-TAP plates containing ampicillin (100 mg/L) or chloramphenicol (100 mg/L). Plates were then incubated at 23+/−0.5° C. under continuous illumination with a light intensity of 8000 Lx. Cells were analyzed 5-7 days later.

[0571] In an example for production of UDP-galactose, C. reinhardtii cells are modified with transcriptional units comprising the genes encoding a galactokinase like e.g., from Arabidopsis thaliana (KIN, UniProt ID Q9SEE5) and an UDP-sugar pyrophosphorylase like e.g., USP from A. thaliana (UniProt ID Q9C5I1).

[0572] In an example for LN3 production, a constitutive transcriptional comprising a galactoside beta-1,3-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase like e.g., lgtA from N. meningitidis (SEQ ID NO:36). In an example for LNT production, the LN3 producing strain is further modified with a constitutive transcriptional unit comprising an N-acetylglucosamine beta-1,3-galactosyltransferase like e.g., WbgO from E. coli 055:H7 (SEQ ID NO:37). In an example for LNnT production, the LN3 producing strain is further modified with a constitutive transcriptional unit comprising an N-acetylglucosamine beta-1,4-galactosyltransferase like e.g., lgtB from N. meningitidis (SEQ ID NO:38).

[0573] In an example for production of GDP-fucose, C. reinhardtii cells are modified with a transcriptional unit for a GDP-fucose synthase like e.g., from Arabidopsis thaliana (GER1, UniProt ID 049213).

[0574] In an example for fucosylation, C. reinhardtii cells can be modified with an expression plasmid comprising a constitutive transcriptional unit for an alpha-1,2-fucosyltransferase like e.g., HpFutC from H. pylori (SEQ ID NO:26) and/or an alpha-1,3-fucosyltransferase like e.g., HpFucT from H. pylori (SEQ ID NO:27).

[0575] In an example for CMP-sialic acid synthesis, C. reinhardtii cells are modified with constitutive transcriptional units for one or more UDP-N-acetylglucosamine-2-epimerase/N-acetylmannosamine kinases like e.g., GNE from Homo sapiens (UniProt ID Q9Y223) or a mutant form of the human GNE polypeptide comprising the R263L mutation or GNE from Mus musculus (UniProt ID Q91WG8), one or more N-acylneuraminate-9-phosphate synthetases like e.g., NANS from Homo sapiens (UniProt ID Q9NR45), NANS from Pseudomonas sp. UW4 (UniProt ID K9NPH9) and one or more N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferases like e.g., CMAS from Homo sapiens (UniProt ID Q8NFW8). In an example for production of sialylated oligosaccharides, C. reinhardtii cells are modified with a CMP-sialic acid transporter like e.g., CST from Mus musculus (UniProt ID Q61420), and a Golgi-localized sialyltransferase chosen from species like e.g., Homo sapiens, Mus musculus, Rattus norvegicus.

[0576] Heterologous and Homologous Expression

[0577] Genes that needed to be expressed, be it from a plasmid or from the genome were synthetically synthetized with one of the following companies: DNA2.0, Gen9, Twist Biosciences or IDT.

[0578] Expression could be further facilitated by optimizing the codon usage to the codon usage of the expression host. Genes were optimized using the tools of the supplier.

[0579] Cultivation Conditions

[0580] Cells of C. reinhardtii were cultured in selective TAP-agar plates at 23+/−0.5° C. under 14/10 h light/dark cycles with a light intensity of 8000 Lx. Cells were analyzed after 5 to 7 days of cultivation.

[0581] For high-density cultures, cells could be cultivated in closed systems like e.g., vertical or horizontal tube photobioreactors, stirred tank photobioreactors or flat panel photobioreactors as described by Chen et al. (Bioresour. Technol. 2011, 102: 71-81) and Johnson et al. (Biotechnol. Prog. 2018, 34: 811-827).

Example 31. Production of an Oligosaccharide Mixture Comprising Sialylated LNB and Sialylated LacNAc Structures in Mutant C. reinhardtii Cells

[0582] C. reinhardtii cells are engineered as described in Example 30 for production of CMP-sialic acid with genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units comprising GNE from Mus musculus (UniProt ID Q91WG8) and a mutant form of the human GNE (UniProt ID UniProt ID Q9Y223) differing from the native human GNE polypeptide with a R263L mutation, the N-acylneuraminate-9-phosphate synthetase NANS from Homo sapiens (UniProt ID Q9NR45) and the N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase CMAS from Homo sapiens (UniProt ID Q8NFW8). In a next step, the cells are modified with genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units comprising the CMP-sialic acid transporter CST from Mus musculus (UniProt ID Q61420), the alpha-2,3-sialyltransferases (UniProt IDs P61943 and E9PSJ1) from Rattus norvegicus and the alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase (UniProt ID P13721) from Rattus norvegicus. In a final step, the cells are transformed with genomic knock-ins of constitutive transcriptional units comprising the Arabidopsis thaliana genes encoding the galactokinase (KIN, UniProt ID Q9SEE5) and the UDP-sugar pyrophosphorylase (USP) (UniProt ID Q9C.sub.5I1), together with the N-acetylglucosamine beta-1,3-galactosyltransferase WbgO from E. coli 055:H.sub.7 with SEQ ID NO:37 and the N-acetylglucosamine beta-1,4-galactosyltransferase LgtB from N. meningitidis with SEQ ID NO:38. The novel strain is evaluated for production of an oligosaccharide mixture comprising 3′-sialyllacto-N-biose (3′SLNB), 6′-sialyllacto-N-biose (6′SLNB), 3′-sialyllactosamine (3′SLacNAc) and 6′-sialyllactosamine (6′SLacNAc) in a cultivation experiment on TAP-agar plates comprising galactose, glucose and N-acetylglucosamine as precursors according to the culture conditions provided in Example 30. After 5 days of incubation, the cells are harvested, and the saccharide production is analyzed on UPLC.

Example 32. Materials and Methods Animal Cells

[0583] Isolation of Mesenchymal Stem Cells from Adipose Tissue of Different Mammals

[0584] Fresh adipose tissue is obtained from slaughterhouses (e.g., cattle, pigs, sheep, chicken, ducks, catfish, snake, frogs) or liposuction (e.g., in case of humans, after informed consent) and kept in phosphate buffer saline supplemented with antibiotics. Enzymatic digestion of the adipose tissue is performed followed by centrifugation to isolate mesenchymal stem cells. The isolated mesenchymal stem cells are transferred to cell culture flasks and grown under standard growth conditions, e.g., 370 C, 5% CO.sub.2. The initial culture medium includes DMEM-F12, RPMI, and Alpha-MEM medium (supplemented with 15% fetal bovine serum), and 1% antibiotics. The culture medium is subsequently replaced with 10% FBS (fetal bovine serum)-supplemented media after the first passage. For example, Ahmad and Shakoori (2013, Stem Cell Regen Med. 9(2): 29-36), which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes, describes certain variation(s) of the method(s) described herein in this example.

[0585] Isolation of Mesenchymal Stem Cells from Milk

[0586] This example illustrates isolation of mesenchymal stem cells from milk collected under aseptic conditions from human or any other mammal(s) such as described herein. An equal volume of phosphate buffer saline is added to diluted milk, followed by centrifugation for 20 min. The cell pellet is washed thrice with phosphate buffer saline and cells are seeded in cell culture flasks in DMEM-F12, RPMI, and Alpha-MEM medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum and 1% antibiotics under standard culture conditions. For example, Hassiotou et al. (2012, Stem Cells. 30(10): 2164-2174), which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes, describes certain variation(s) of the method(s) described herein in this example.

[0587] Differentiation of Stem Cells Using 2D and 3D Culture Systems

[0588] The isolated mesenchymal cells can be differentiated into mammary-like epithelial and luminal cells in 2D and 3D culture systems. See, for example, Huynh et al. 1991. Exp Cell Res. 197(2): 191-199; Gibson et al. 1991, In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim. 27(7): 585-594; Blatchford et al. 1999; Animal Cell Technology’: Basic & Applied Aspects, Springer, Dordrecht. 141-145; Williams et al. 2009, Breast Cancer Res 11(3): 26-43; and Arevalo et al. 2015, Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 310(5): C348-C356; each of which is incorporated herein by reference in their entireties for all purposes.

[0589] For 2D culture, the isolated cells were initially seeded in culture plates in growth media supplemented with 10 ng/ml epithelial growth factor and 5 pg/ml insulin. At confluence, cells were fed with growth medium supplemented with 2% fetal bovine serum, 1% penicillin-streptomycin (100 U/ml penicillin, 100 ug/ml streptomycin), and 5 pg/ml insulin for 48h. To induce differentiation, the cells were fed with complete growth medium containing 5 pg/ml insulin, 1 pg/ml hydrocortisone, 0.65 ng/ml triiodothyronine, 100 nM dexamethasone, and 1 pg/ml prolactin. After 24h, serum is removed from the complete induction medium.

[0590] For 3D culture, the isolated cells were trypsinized and cultured in Matrigel, hyaluronic acid, or ultra-low attachment surface culture plates for six days and induced to differentiate and lactate by adding growth media supplemented with 10 ng/ml epithelial growth factor and 5 pg/ml insulin. At confluence, cells were fed with growth medium supplemented with 2% fetal bovine serum, 1% penicillin-streptomycin (100 U/ml penicillin, 100 ug/ml streptomycin), and 5 pg/ml insulin for 48 h. To induce differentiation, the cells were fed with complete growth medium containing 5 pg/ml insulin, 1 pg/ml hydrocortisone, 0.65 ng/ml triiodothyronine, 100 nM dexamethasone, and 1 pg/ml prolactin. After 24 h, serum is removed from the complete induction medium.

[0591] Method of Making Mammary-Like Cells

[0592] Mammalian cells are brought to induced pluripotency by reprogramming with viral vectors encoding for Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, and c-Myc. The resultant reprogrammed cells are then cultured in Mammocult media (available from Stem Cell Technologies), or mammary cell enrichment media (DMEM, 3% FBS, estrogen, progesterone, heparin, hydrocortisone, insulin, EGF) to make them mammary-like, from which expression of select milk components can be induced. Alternatively, epigenetic remodelling is performed using remodelling systems such as CRISPR/Cas9, to activate select genes of interest, such as casein, a-lactalbumin to be constitutively on, to allow for the expression of their respective proteins, and/or to down-regulate and/or knock-out select endogenous genes as described e.g., in WO 2021067641, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes.

[0593] Cultivation

[0594] Completed growth media includes high glucose DMEM/F12, 10% FBS, 1% NEAA, 1% pen/strep, 1% ITS-X, 1% F-Glu, 10 ng/ml EGF, and 5 pg/ml hydrocortisone. Completed lactation media includes high glucose DMEM/F12, 1% NEAA, 1% pen/strep, 1% ITS-X, 1% F-Glu, 10 ng/ml EGF, 5 pg/ml hydrocortisone, and 1 pg/ml prolactin (5 ug/ml in Hyunh 1991). Cells are seeded at a density of 20,000 cells/cm.sup.2 onto collagen coated flasks in completed growth media and left to adhere and expand for 48 hours in completed growth media, after which the media is switched out for completed lactation media. Upon exposure to the lactation media, the cells start to differentiate and stop growing. Within about a week, the cells start secreting lactation product(s) such as milk lipids, lactose, casein and whey into the media. A desired concentration of the lactation media can be achieved by concentration or dilution by ultrafiltration. A desired salt balance of the lactation media can be achieved by dialysis, for example, to remove unwanted metabolic products from the media. Hormones and other growth factors used can be selectively extracted by resin purification, for example, the use of nickel resins to remove His-tagged growth factors, to further reduce the levels of contaminants in the lactated product.

Example 33. Evaluation of LacNAc, Sialylated LacNAc Structures and Sialyl-Lewis x Production in a Non-Mammary Adult Stem Cell

[0595] Isolated mesenchymal cells and re-programmed into mammary-like cells as described in Example 32 are modified via CRISPR-CAS to over-express the beta-1,4-galactosyltransferase 4 B4GalT4 from Homo sapiens (UniProt ID 060513), the GDP-fucose synthase GFUS from Homo sapiens (UniProt ID Q13630), the galactoside alpha-1,3-fucosyltransferase FUT3 from Homo sapiens (UniProt ID P21217), the N-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferases from Mus musculus (UniProt ID Q99KK2) and from Homo sapiens (UniProt ID Q8NFW8), and the CMP-N-acetylneuraminate-beta-1,4-galactoside alpha-2,3-sialyltransferase ST3GAL3 from Homo sapiens (UniProt ID Q11203) and the alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase (UniProt ID P13721) from Rattus norvegicus. All genes introduced in the cells are codon-optimized to the host. Cells are seeded at a density of 20,000 cells/cm.sup.2 onto collagen coated flasks in completed growth media and left to adhere and expand for 48 hours in completed growth media, after which the media is switched out for completed lactation media for about 7 days. After cultivation as described in Example 32, cells are subjected to UPLC to analyze for production of LacNAc, 3′-sialylated LacNAc, 6′-sialylated LacNAc and sialyl-Lewis x.