Semiconductor optical phased arrays (OPA's) and methods related thereto

Abstract

Disclosed is a system and method for solid-state 2D optical phased arrays (OPAs), which are fabricated from In-rich In.sub.1-xGa.sub.xN/GaN multiple quantum wells (MQWs). In-rich In.sub.xGa.sub.1-xN alloys possess the unique properties of exceptionally high free-carrier-induced refractive index (n) change and low optical loss. InGaN/GaN MQW pixels play the role of using a very small fraction of a laser beam to modulate the phase of the laser beam. The phase of each MQW pixel in the OPA is controlled independently via electro-optic effect through the integration between OPA pixels with a Laterally Diffused MOSFET (LDMOS) integrated circuit driver to achieve the manipulation of the distribution of optical power in the far field. The present invention is applicable to a wide range of applications, including the operation of LIDAR systems, laser weapons, laser illuminators, and laser imaging systems.

Claims

1. A method of fabricating a solid-state 2D optical phased array (OPA), comprising: producing InGaN/GaN multiple quantum wells (MQWs) with a total active layer thickness (wells) of L.sub.w, and a total barrier thickness of L.sub.b; forming an MQW pixel array by defining MQW pixels on the InGaN/GaN MQWs wherein each MQW pixel is sufficiently large that a laser beam reflected from the OPA is capable of being subjected to an optical path variation in the each MQW pixel, leading to a phase control in the each MQW pixel from 0 to greater than π; and integrating an independent laterally diffused MOSFET (LDMOS) integrated circuit (IC) driver to independently control the each MQW pixel to achieve manipulation of the distribution of optical power in the far field; wherein the OPA is fabricated to operate in the spectral region of around λ=1.5 μm and utilize a limited fraction of a laser beam to modulate the phase of the laser beam.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the InGaN/GaN MQWs comprise In.sub.1-xGa.sub.xN/GaN multiple quantum wells having a Ga composition at around x˜0.05 produced by epitaxial growth methods selected from a group consisting of: metal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD), molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), hydride vapor phase epitaxy (HVPE); and combinations thereof, on double sided polished sapphire substrates.

3. The method of claim 1, wherein the pixel array are defined by nanofabrication techniques selected from a group consisting of: electron-beam (e-beam) lithography together with dry etching techniques, extreme UV (EUV) optical lithography together with dry etching techniques, by focused ion beam (FIB) etching, or combinations thereof.

4. The method of claim 1, wherein the LDMOS IC driver chip is designed and fabricated to allow the integration of 50 V devices on chip, and flip-chip bonded with the MQW pixel array allowing for active control of the phase of each MQW pixel in the OPA via electro-optic effect through the integration between the MQW pixel and the LDMOS IC driver.

5. The method of claim 1, wherein the limited laser beam fraction of less than 2% of the laser power is sufficient to generate and uphold a sufficiently high carrier density in each MQW pixel to effectively change the refractive index of InGaN and subsequently cause a phase shift of laser beam in each MQW pixel of the OPA.

6. A system for solid-state 2D optical phased array (OPA)-based modulation of a laser beam, comprising: In.sub.1-xGa.sub.xN/GaN multiple quantum wells (MQWs) having a Ga composition at around x˜0.05, comprising an OPA, each MQW comprising an MQW pixel, wherein each MQW pixel utilizes a limited fraction of a laser beam; an independent laterally diffused MOSFET (LDMOS) integrated circuit (IC) driver to independently control each MQW pixel to achieve manipulation of the distribution of optical power in the far field; wherein each MQW pixel is capable of changing the optical path length to provide phase control of each pixel from 0 to 1.05π, and wherein the OPAs operate in the spectral region of around λ=1.5 μm and utilize said limited fraction of a laser beam to modulate the phase of the laser beam.

7. The system of claim 6, wherein the limited laser beam fraction used by the OPA is less than 2% of the laser power and is sufficient to generate and uphold a sufficiently high carrier density in each MQW pixel to effectively modulate the refractive index of InGaN and subsequently cause a phase shift of laser beam in each MQW pixel of the OPA.

8. The system of claim 6, wherein the OPA phase is controlled by directly controlling the phase of each MQW pixel using an electro-optic effect to effect MQW pixel pitch.

9. The system of claim 6, further comprising the mitigation of atmospheric turbulence and aero-optical turbulence as well as of beam steering by directly controlling the phase of individual MQW pixels via electro-optic effect by continuous active phase shifting from 0 to π.

10. The system of claim 6, wherein the OPA can be made to function in the visible spectral range by reducing the MQW pixel pitch.

11. The system of claim 6, further comprising a computing device networked to the OPA via the LDMOS IC driver for controlling modulation of the MQW pixels.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) The foregoing and other objects, features, and advantages of the present invention will be apparent from the following description of embodiments as illustrated in the accompanying drawings, in which reference characters refer to the same parts throughout the various views. The drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placed upon illustrating principles of the present invention:

(2) FIG. 1A depicts a schematic of a cross-sectional view of the reflective OPA based on InGaN/GaN MQW pixel array of the present invention.

(3) FIG. 1B depicts a side view of an InGaN/GaN MQW OPA of the present invention.

(4) FIG. 2A-C depicts illustrations of carrier modulation via electro-optic effect in InGaN/GaN MQW and the counterbalance between the (A) quantum confinement effect, (B) quantum Stark effect, and (C) band filling in InGaN/GaN MQW to establish a sustainable carrier concentration as well as a reduction in the index of refraction and a phase shift at 1.5 μm. Due to the large values of the band offsets of the conduction band (ΔE.sub.C) and valence band (ΔE.sub.V) as well as a sufficiently large well width (˜10 nm), the tunneling current in the MQW will be negligible.

(5) FIG. 3 depicts an illustration of three representative pixel states within an OPA of the present invention: (1) in the absence of an applied electric field (E=0), no optical absorption at 1.5 μm occurs in MQW and 86% of laser beam is reflected back; (2) at E=E.sub.o/2, 1% of laser beam is absorbed by MQW and 85% of laser beam is reflected back; (3) at E=E.sub.o, 2% of laser beam is absorbed by MQW and 84% of laser beam is reflected back. The total active layer thickness or the sum of well thicknesses, L.sub.w, is designed to be about 3.6 μm, providing a change in optical path length of ΔL=2L.sub.w(InGaN)Δn=2×3.6 μm×0.11=0.79 μm.

(6) FIG. 4 depicts a room temperature photoluminescence spectrum of an InN epilayer grown by metal organic chemical vapor deposition, exhibiting an emission energy peak near 0.744 eV or 1.66 μm.

(7) FIG. 5 depicts a zoom-in view of a detailed layer structure of InGaN/GaN MQW OPAs of the present invention. The highly reflective mirror can be constructed from a thin metallic layer including gold, silver, and aluminum. The highly reflective mirror can also be a monolithically grown distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) based on multilayers of III-nitride materials.

(8) FIG. 6 depicts simulated reflectivity of a representative distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) based on multilayers of III-nitride materials, e.g., AlN/Al.sub.0.5Ga.sub.0.5N DBR, at 1550 nm.

(9) FIG. 7 depicts a block diagram of the integrated OPA driver for controlling the electric field applied to individual pixels of the InGaN/GaN MQW OPA of the present invention.

(10) FIG. 8A depicts a far field radiation pattern of a reflected beam from 1×10 uniformly distributed linear arrays with different pixel pitches with the main beam being steered to broadside (Φ=90°).

(11) FIG. 8B depicts a far field radiation pattern of a reflected beam from uniformly distributed linear arrays with different pixel pitches with the main beam being steered to Φ=45°. The inset is a schematic of such a one-dimensional 1×10 uniformly distributed InGaN/GaN MQW linear array in which the reflected beam is steered by controlling the relative phase of each pixel.

(12) FIG. 9A-B depicts a far field radiation pattern of a reflected beam from 10×10 OPAs with different pixel pitches with the main beam being steered to broadside (z-axis, or θ=0°).

(13) FIG. 10 depicts a schematic illustration of using an InGaN OPA for laser beam steering and controlling.

(14) FIG. 11 depicts a schematic illustration of using an InGaN OPA for correcting the atmospheric and aero-optical turbulences by directly controlling the laser beam front.

(15) FIG. 12 depicts a schematic illustration of using InGaN OPAs for combining multiple laser beams.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

(16) While the making and using of various embodiments of the present invention are discussed in detail below, it should be appreciated that the present invention provides many applicable inventive concepts that can be embodied in a wide variety of specific contexts, goods, or services. The specific embodiments discussed herein are merely illustrative of specific ways to make and use the present invention and do not delimit the scope of the present invention.

(17) All publications and patent applications mentioned in the specification are indicative of the level of skill of those skilled in the art to which the present invention pertains. All publications and patent applications are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.

(18) The present invention will now be described more fully hereinafter with reference to the accompanying drawings, which form a part hereof, and which show, by way of illustration, specific example embodiments. Subject matter may, however, be embodied in a variety of different forms and, therefore, covered or claimed subject matter is intended to be construed as not being limited to any example embodiments set forth herein; example embodiments are provided merely to be illustrative. Likewise, a reasonably broad scope for claimed or covered subject matter is intended. Among other things, for example, subject matter may be embodied as methods, devices, components, or systems. Accordingly, embodiments may, for example, take the form of hardware, software, firmware or any combination thereof (other than software per se). The following detailed description is, therefore, not intended to be taken in a limiting sense.

(19) Throughout the specification and claims, terms may have nuanced meanings suggested or implied in context beyond an explicitly stated meaning. Likewise, the phrase “in one embodiment” as used herein does not necessarily refer to the same embodiment and the phrase “in another embodiment” as used herein does not necessarily refer to a different embodiment. It is intended, for example, that claimed subject matter include combinations of example embodiments in whole or in part.

(20) In general, terminology may be understood at least in part from usage in context. For example, terms, such as “and”, “or”, or “and/or,” as used herein may include a variety of meanings that may depend at least in part upon the context in which such terms are used. Typically, “or” if used to associate a list, such as A, B or C, is intended to mean A, B, and C, here used in the inclusive sense, as well as A, B or C, here used in the exclusive sense. In addition, the term “one or more” as used herein, depending at least in part upon context, may be used to describe any feature, structure, or characteristic in a singular sense or may be used to describe combinations of features, structures or characteristics in a plural sense. Similarly, terms, such as “a,” “an,” or “the,” again, may be understood to convey a singular usage or to convey a plural usage, depending at least in part upon context. In addition, the term “based on” may be understood as not necessarily intended to convey an exclusive set of factors and may, instead, allow for existence of additional factors not necessarily expressly described, again, depending at least in part on context.

(21) The present invention is described below with reference to block diagrams and operational illustrations of methods and devices. It is understood that each block of the block diagrams or operational illustrations, and combinations of blocks in the block diagrams or operational illustrations, can be implemented by means of analog or digital hardware and computer program instructions. These computer program instructions can be provided to a processor of a general purpose computer, special purpose computer, ASIC, or other programmable data processing apparatus, such that the instructions, which execute via the processor of the computer or other programmable data processing apparatus, implement the functions/acts specified in the block diagrams or operational block or blocks. In some alternate implementations, the functions/acts noted in the blocks can occur out of the order noted in the operational illustrations. For example, two blocks shown in succession can in fact be executed substantially concurrently or the blocks can sometimes be executed in the reverse order, depending upon the functionality/acts involved.

(22) For the purposes of the present invention the term “computing device” should be understood to refer to a processor which provides processing, database, and communication facilities. By way of example, and not limitation, a computing device can refer to a single, physical processor with associated communications and data storage and database facilities, or it can refer to a networked or clustered complex of processors and associated network and storage devices, including a software server, as well as operating software and one or more database systems and application software that support the services provided by the computing device. Computing devices may vary widely in configuration or capabilities, but generally a computing device may include one or more central processing units and memory. A computing device may also include one or more mass storage devices, one or more power supplies, one or more wired or wireless network interfaces, one or more input/output interfaces, or one or more operating systems, such as Windows Server, Mac OS X, Unix, Linux, FreeBSD, or the like.

(23) For the purposes of the present invention a computer readable medium (or computer-readable storage medium/media) stores computer data, which data can include computer program code (or computer-executable instructions) that is executable by a computing device, in machine readable form. By way of example, and not limitation, a computer readable medium may comprise computer readable storage media, for tangible or fixed storage of data, or communication media for transient interpretation of code-containing signals. Computer readable storage media, as used herein, refers to physical or tangible storage (as opposed to signals) and includes without limitation volatile and non-volatile, removable and non-removable media implemented in any method or technology for the tangible storage of information such as computer-readable instructions, data structures, program modules or other data. Computer readable storage media includes, but is not limited to, RAM, ROM, EPROM, EEPROM, flash memory or other solid state memory technology, CD-ROM, DVD, or other optical storage, magnetic cassettes, magnetic tape, magnetic disk storage or other magnetic storage devices, or any other physical or material medium which can be used to tangibly store the desired information or data or instructions and which can be accessed by a computer or processor.

(24) For the purposes of the present invention a “network” should be understood to refer to a network that may couple devices so that communications may be exchanged, such as between a server and a client device or other types of devices, including between wireless devices coupled via a wireless network, for example. A network may also include mass storage, such as network attached storage (NAS), a storage area network (SAN), or other forms of computer or machine readable media, for example. A network may include the Internet, one or more local area networks (LANs), one or more wide area networks (WANs), wire-line type connections, wireless type connections, cellular or any combination thereof. Likewise, sub-networks, which may employ differing architectures or may be compliant or compatible with differing protocols, may interoperate within a larger network. Various types of devices may, for example, be made available to provide an interoperable capability for differing architectures or protocols. As one illustrative example, a router may provide a link between otherwise separate and independent LANs.

(25) For purposes of the present invention, a “wireless network” should be understood to couple client devices with a network. A wireless network may employ stand-alone ad-hoc networks, mesh networks, Wireless LAN (WLAN) networks, cellular networks, or the like. A wireless network may further include a system of terminals, gateways, routers, or the like coupled by wireless radio links, or the like, which may move freely, randomly or organize themselves arbitrarily, such that network topology may change, at times even rapidly. A wireless network may further employ a plurality of network access technologies, including Long Term Evolution (LTE), WLAN, Wireless Router (WR) mesh, or 2nd, 3rd, or 4th generation (2G, 3G, or 4G) cellular technology, or the like. Network access technologies may enable wide area coverage for devices, such as client devices with varying degrees of mobility, for example.

(26) For example, a network may enable RF or wireless type communication via one or more network access technologies, such as Global System for Mobile communication (GSM), Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), General Packet Radio Services (GPRS), Enhanced Data GSM Environment (EDGE), 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE), LTE Advanced, Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA), North American/CEPT frequencies, radio frequencies, single sideband, radiotelegraphy, radioteletype (RTTY), Bluetooth, 802.11b/g/n, or the like. A wireless network may include virtually any type of wireless communication mechanism by which signals may be communicated between devices, such as a client device or a computing device, between or within a network, or the like.

(27) A computing device may be capable of sending or receiving signals, such as via a wired or wireless network, or may be capable of processing or storing signals, such as in memory as physical memory states, and may, therefore, operate as a server. Thus, devices capable of operating as a server may include, as examples, dedicated rack-mounted servers, desktop computers, laptop computers, set top boxes, integrated devices combining various features, such as two or more features of the foregoing devices, or the like. Servers may vary widely in configuration or capabilities, but generally a server may include one or more central processing units and memory. A server may also include one or more mass storage devices, one or more power supplies, one or more wired or wireless network interfaces, one or more input/output interfaces, or one or more operating systems, such as Windows Server, Mac OS X, Unix, Linux, FreeBSD, or the like.

(28) For purposes of the present invention, a client (or consumer or user) device may include a computing device capable of sending or receiving signals, such as via a wired or a wireless network. A client device may, for example, include a desktop computer or a portable device, such as a cellular telephone, a smart phone, a display pager, a radio frequency (RF) device, an infrared (IR) device an Near Field Communication (NFC) device, a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA), a handheld computer, a tablet computer, a laptop computer, a set top box, a wearable computer, an integrated device combining various features, such as features of the forgoing devices, or the like.

(29) A client device may vary in terms of capabilities or features. Claimed subject matter is intended to cover a wide range of potential variations. For example, a mobile device may include a numeric keypad or a display of limited functionality, such as a monochrome liquid crystal display (LCD) for displaying text. In contrast, however, as another example, a web-enabled client device may include one or more physical or virtual keyboards, mass storage, one or more accelerometers, one or more gyroscopes, global positioning system (GPS) or other location-identifying type capability, or a display with a high degree of functionality, such as a touch-sensitive color 2D or 3D display, for example.

(30) The principles discussed herein may be embodied in many different forms. The preferred embodiments of the present invention will now be described where for completeness, reference should be made at least to the Figures.

(31) Thus, based on the above foundational discussion, in addition to the detailed discussion below, the present invention describes systems and methods for the design and fabrication of an optical phased array (OPA) operating at a wavelength around 1.5 μm. As schematically illustrated in FIGS. 1A and 1B, the OPA of the present invention operates in the reflective mode and has the capability of mitigating atmospheric turbulence and aero-optical turbulence by directly controlling the laser beam front through controlling the phases of individual pixels. FIG. 2 teaches how the phase shifting of individual pixels is controlled by utilizing the effects of (a) quantum confinement, (b) quantum Stark, and (c) band filling in InGaN/GaN MQW. FIG. 3 teaches how the reflectivity of a pixel can be controlled by applying different voltages across the pixel. The ability of controlling the phase shifting of individual pixels within an InGaN/GaN MQW OPA of the present invention is based on the following two key criteria:

(32) (1) As shown in FIG. 4, InN has an energy bandgap near 0.744 eV (or 1.66 μm). Consequence, In.sub.1-xGa.sub.xN alloys have a tunable bandgap and In.sub.1-xGa.sub.xN (x=0.05) has an energy bandgap of E.sub.g≈hν (1.5 μm) [19].

(33) (2) InN-rich In.sub.xGa.sub.1-xN alloys possess the unique property of exceptionally high carrier-induced refractive index (n) change while the free-carrier induced optical loss is extremely low. At 1.5 μm, increasing the concentrations of free electrons and free holes by 5×10.sup.18 cm.sup.−3 produces >4% a change in n by more than 4% or Δn>0.11 [20].

(34) Therefore, the principle of InGaN/GaN MQW OPAs of the present invention is analogous to the use of each pixel in an InGaN/GaN MQW OPA as a charge carrier or electric field (E) induced electro-optic phase modulator, based on the understanding of the following physical processes:

(35) (1) As illustrated in FIG. 2A, in the state of E=0, photon absorption at 1.5 μm within In.sub.1-xGa.sub.xN MQW (x=0.05) is negligibly small since the apparent energy bandgap of the MQW is slightly higher than the photon energy of the laser beam by an amount of quantum confinement energy (δ), E.sub.g (MQWs)=hν (1.5 μm=0.8 eV)+δ. In this state, 86% of laser beam is reflected back, whereas 86% is the reflectivity or the filling factor of the OPA of the present invention, which is obtained by knowing that the pixel size is designed to be 0.7 μm, pixel pitch is designed to be 0.75 μm, and the reflectivity of the back reflective mirror is designed have a reflectivity of equal or greater than 99%, giving (0.7 μm/0.75 μm).sup.2−1% (mirror)=86%;
(2) As shown in FIG. 2B, under an applied field (E), E.sub.g (MQW) will be reduced to below hν (1.5 μm=0.8 eV) due to quantum stark effect. This will induce absorption of laser photons and free carrier (electrons and holes) generation in In.sub.1-xGa.sub.xN MQW, whereas the E field is continuously controlled (up to E.sub.0≈10.sup.5 V/cm) by the bias voltage applied to each pixel via an LDMOS IC driver (up to 50 V). More specifically, at E=E.sub.o/2, 1% of laser beam is absorbed by MQW and consequently 85% of laser beam is reflected back; at E=E.sub.o, 2% of laser beam is absorbed by MQW and 84% of laser beam is reflected back. These scenarios are illustrated in FIG. 3.
(3) Accompanying with the charge carrier generation is the effect of band filling in the conduction and valence bands of InGaN wells, i.e., the Fermi levels of electrons and holes in the wells increase with fee carrier generation, so that E.sub.g(MQWs)=hν(1.5 μm=0.8 eV)+δ is again attained, as illustrated in FIG. 2C. Beyond this point, no further photon absorption in MQW occurs, and an equilibrium carrier concentration, n.sub.equ, is established. The value of n.sub.equ in each pixel depends on the magnitude of the applied E field and can be continuously controlled.
(4) The attainment of an equilibrium carrier concentration leads to a reduction in the refractive index as well as a phase shift in each pixel of OPA at 1.5 μm. A change from a very low intrinsic carrier concentration to 5×10.sup.18 cm.sup.−3 in n.sub.equ will produce a corresponding change in the refractive index at 1.5 μm by an amount of 0.11, as calculated for In-rich InGaN alloys [20]. One embodiment of the present invention provides a MQW structure as shown in FIG. 5, which consists of InGaN wells with a well width of around 10 nm, GaN barriers width a barrier width of around 2.5 nm, and a total number of periods of around 360, which gives a total thickness of InGaN wells of L.sub.w=3.6 μm. With a total thickness of InGaN wells of L.sub.w=3.6 μm and an insertion of a 99% reflective mirror, the total optical path variation is thus:
ΔL=2L.sub.w(InGaN)Δn=2×3.6 μm×0.11=0.79 μm.  (1)
This provides an ability of phase control in each pixel from 0 to greater than π (=2π×0.79 μm/1.5 μm=1.05 π) with the aid of a controllable electric field E via an LDMOS IC driver.
(5) The estimated fraction of the laser power needed to maintain a maximum carrier concentration of 5×10.sup.18 cm.sup.−3 is less than 2% when laser power density is above 1.3×10.sup.5 W/cm.sup.2, which can be seen from the following calculations. A free carrier concentration of 5×10.sup.18 cm.sup.−3 corresponds to a two-dimensional (2D) electron density (n.sub.0.sup.2D) and hole density (p.sub.0.sup.2D) in InGaN wells (with a total thickness of 3.6 μm) of n.sub.0.sup.2D=p.sub.0.sup.2D≈5×10.sup.18 cm.sup.−3×3.6×10.sup.−4 cm=1.8×10.sup.15 cm.sup.−2. The photon flux, G, needed to sustain this 2D carrier density can be obtained from:
dn.sup.2D/dt=G−n.sup.2D/τ,  (2)

(36) where τ is decay lifetime of photo-generated electrons and holes, which is around 10.sup.−7 s in InGaN/GaN MQW. This implies that under equilibrium, G=n.sub.0.sup.2D/τ=(1.8×10.sup.15 cm.sup.−2)/10.sup.−7 s=1.8×10.sup.22 cm.sup.−2.Math.s.sup.−1. Since hν(1.5 μm)=0.8 eV and the efficiency of photo-carrier generation is almost 100% in InGaN, the optical power density needed to maintain an equilibrium carrier concentration of 5×10.sup.18 cm.sup.−3 is thus,

(37) $\begin{array}{cc}P\left(n_{\mathrm{equ}}\right)=\mathrm{hvG}=0.8\mathrm{eV}\times 1.8\times {10}^{22}{\mathrm{cm}}^{-2}.Math.s^{-1}& \left(3\right)\end{array}$$=1.44\times {10}^{22}\mathrm{eV}{\mathrm{cm}}^{-2}.Math.s^{-1}=2.3\times {10}^{3}J.Math.{\mathrm{cm}}^{-2}.Math.s^{-1}=2.3\times {10}^{3}W/{\mathrm{cm}}^2.$

(38) For a typical laser having an optical power of 1 kW at 1.5 μm and a beam diameter as large as 1 mm (area A=7.85×10.sup.−3 cm.sup.2), it corresponds to a laser power density of P (Laser)=10.sup.3 W/7.85×10.sup.−3 cm.sup.2=1.3×10.sup.5 W/cm.sup.2. When this laser beam passes through and is reflected from the OPA of the present invention, only a fraction of less than 2% (=2.3×10.sup.3 Wcm.sup.−2/1.3×10.sup.5 Wcm.sup.−2) of the laser power will be enough to generate and uphold a sufficiently high carrier density in MQW to effectively change the refractive index of InGaN and subsequently cause a phase shift of laser beam in each pixel of OPA. It is worth to note that this estimate of laser power density is extremely conservative because most high energy lasers have a power density greatly exceeding 1.3×10.sup.5 W/cm.sup.2. This implies that even a smaller fraction of laser power will be sufficient to generate and maintain a free carrier concentration of n.sub.0.sup.2D=p.sub.0.sup.2D≈5×10.sup.18 cm.sup.−3. So effectively, InGaN/GaN MQW pixels play the role of using a very small fraction of the laser beam (less than 2%) to modulate the phase of the laser beam.

(39) The band offsets of the conduction band (ΔE.sub.C) and valence band (ΔE.sub.V) between In-rich InGaN and GaN are very large. This together with a sufficiently large well width (˜10 nm) makes the tunneling current in the MQWs to be negligibly small under an applied electric field.

(40) FIG. 5 presents a detailed layer structure of InGaN/GaN MQW OPAs of the present invention. In one aspect of the present invention, In.sub.1-xGa.sub.xN and GaN epilayers and In.sub.1-xGa.sub.xN/GaN (x=0.05) MQW are produced by epitaxial growth techniques, using metal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD), molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), or hydride vapor phase epitaxy (HVPE) on double side polished sapphire substrates. The highly reflective mirror can be constructed from a thin metallic layer including gold, silver, and aluminum. The highly reflective mirror can also be a monolithically grown distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) based on multilayers of III-nitride materials.

(41) FIG. 6 teaches how to obtain a highly reflective distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) based on multilayers of III-nitride materials, e.g., AlN/Al.sub.0.5Ga.sub.0.5N DBR, at 1550 nm. In one aspect of the present invention, DBR based on multilayers of III-nitride materials are deposited on In.sub.1-xGa.sub.xN/GaN MQW structure using epitaxial growth techniques, including MOCVD, MBE, or HVPE. In another aspect of the present invention, the reflective metallic mirrors are deposited on In.sub.1-xGa.sub.xN/GaN MQW structure using an electron-beam evaporation, thermal evaporation, or electroplating.

(42) In another aspect of the present invention, the pixel of OPAs will be formed using focused ion beam (FIB), electron-beam lithography together with plasma dry etching, or extremely ultraviolet lithography together with plasma dry etching.

(43) One embodiment of the present invention provides a method for fabricating the integrated OPA driver. FIG. 7 teaches the design of a Si LDMOS IC driver. In the design, digital serial data input controls the voltage levels of the M×N OPA pixels. For each pixel, K-bit data is used to represent the desired voltage level from 0 to 50 V providing a field from 0 to 10.sup.5 V/cm across each pixel. Shift register groups will distribute the clock and data for array element access and control. Shift register SR-I distributes the clock to digital sample-and-hold (digital S&H) circuits with J-elements for parallel processing. The digital input is grouped into J parallel data, each of which is sent to one of the S&H circuits. Therefore, each digital S&H and digital-to-analog converter (DAC) unit only processes every J set of data. This increases the maximum processing speed. The analog signals are then passed to the N-bit analog S&H circuitry to be stored for controlling each row of the OPA. Shift register SR-II controls which analog S&H circuit is sampling at a given time to sequentially program the N-bit analog S&H block. Shift register SR-III steps through the OPA one row at a time, enabling that row to be addressed using the data of the N-bit analog S&H circuits. The counter generates CLK1 and CLK2 to ensure synchronous OPA addressing. For K=8 bits, 0.7-degree average phase resolution can be achieved.

(44) Another embodiment of the present invention provides a method to integrate In.sub.xGa.sub.1-xN/GaN MQW pixel array with a Si LDMOS driver to allow an independent control of the bias voltage applied to each pixel. FIG. 3 teaches that the integration method is flip-chip bonding via indium bumps. Note that a high-resolution self-emissive microdisplay based on InGaN microLEDs and operating in an active driving scheme was realized via hybrid integration between an InGaN microLED array and a silicon integrated circuit chip using flip-chip bonding via indium bumps [21-23]. However, the pixel size feature of InGaN/GaN MQW OPAs of the present invention is about 1 order of magnitude smaller than that of InGaN microLEDs.

(45) FIG. 8A shows the predicted far field radiation patterns of a reflected laser beam from a one-dimensional 1×10 uniformly distributed InGaN/GaN MQW linear array in which the reflected beam is steered by controlling the relative phase of each pixel with the main beam being steered to broadside (Φ=90°). FIG. 8B shows the predicted far field radiation patterns of a reflected laser beam from a one-dimensional 1×10 uniformly distributed InGaN/GaN MQW linear array in which the reflected beam is steered by controlling the relative phase of each pixel with the main beam being steered to Φ=45°. In both cases, the pixel pitch varies from 5λ to 0.5λ, where λ is the emission wavelength of the laser beam and λ=1.5 μm in one case. Both cases teach that for any given pixel pitch value, the radiation pattern is predictable.

(46) FIGS. 9A-B show the predicted far field radiation patterns of a reflected laser beam from 10×10 InGaN/GaN MQW OPAs (FIG. 9A) in which the reflected beam is steered by controlling the relative phase of each pixel with different pixel pitches and with the main beam being steered to broadside (z-axis, or θ=0°). The simulation results teach that for any given pixel pitch value, the radiation pattern is predictable (FIG. 9B).

(47) InGaN/GaN MQW OPAs of the present invention have many HEL applications including laser beam steering, mitigation of turbulence and laser beam combining and controlling. The OPAs of the present invention possess advantages of active phase tunability for each pixel, highly tolerant of phase errors and high power due to the high power/temperature handling capability and high thermal conductivity of III-nitrides. The expected response of the proposed OPA is around 10.sup.−7 s, since it is only limited by the electro-optic effect in InGaN and the Si LDMOS switching speed. Furthermore, the OPAs of the present invention can be scaled to very large size phased arrays such as 10.sup.4×10.sup.4 pixel arrays (with a dimension of 7.5 mm×7.5 mm). FIG. 10 teaches how to use an InGaN/GaN MQW OPA for laser beam steering and controlling. FIG. 11 teaches how to use an InGaN/GaN MQW OPA for correcting the atmospheric and aero-optical turbulences by directly controlling the laser beam front. FIG. 12 teaches how to use InGaN/GaN MQW OPAs for combining multiple laser beams.

(48) As InGaN can be designed to be completely transparent down to ˜400 nm by varying the Ga composition, the operating wavelengths can be extended to visible region by further reducing the pixel size and pitch of the OPA.

(49) The invention has been described with reference to the preferred embodiments. The device layout is only for description purposes, is non-limiting, and may be varied to additional layouts to carry out the present invention.