ELASTIC POLYMER MATRIX-PROTECTED PARTICLES OF ANODE ACTIVE MATERIALS FOR LITHIUM BATTERIES AND METHOD OF MANUFACTURING

Abstract

Provided is a powder of multi-functional composite particulates for a lithium battery, wherein at least one of the composite particulates has a diameter from 50 nm to 50 μm and comprises a plurality of anode active material particles that are dispersed in a high-elasticity polymer matrix having a recoverable tensile strain no less than 5%, when measured without an additive or reinforcement, and a lithium ion conductivity no less than 10.sup.−8 S/cm at room temperature, wherein the polymer matrix forms a continuous phase (matrix). Preferably, the composite particulate further comprises a conductive reinforcement (e.g. CNTs, graphene sheets, CNFs, etc.) that forms a 3D network of electron-conducting paths in physical or electronic contact with the anode particles. A production method for these composite particulates is also provided.

Claims

1. Multi-functional composite particulates for a lithium battery, wherein at least one of said composite particulates has a diameter from 50 nm to 50 μm and comprises a plurality of anode active material particles that are dispersed in a high-elasticity polymer matrix having a recoverable tensile strain no less than 5%, when measured without an additive or reinforcement, and a lithium ion conductivity no less than 10.sup.−8 S/cm at room temperature, wherein the polymer matrix forms a continuous material phase.

2. The composite particulates of claim 1, wherein said high-elasticity polymer matrix contains a cross-linked network of polymer chains.

3. The composite particulates of claim 1, wherein said high-elasticity polymer matrix contains a cross-linked network of polymer chains having an ether linkage, nitrile-derived linkage, benzo peroxide-derived linkage, ethylene oxide linkage, propylene oxide linkage, vinyl alcohol linkage, cyano-resin linkage, triacrylate monomer-derived linkage, tetraacrylate monomer-derived linkage, or a combination thereof in said cross-linked network of polymer chains.

4. The composite particulates of claim 1, wherein said high-elasticity polymer matrix contains a cross-linked network of polymer chains selected from nitrile-containing polyvinyl alcohol chains, cyanoresin chains, pentaerythritol tetraacrylate chains, pentaerythritol triacrylate chains, ethoxylated trimethylolpropane triacrylate (ETPTA) chains, ethylene glycol methyl ether acrylate (EGMEA) chains, ethylene oxide-epichlorohydrin copolymer, polyurethane chains, urethane-urea copolymer chains, or a combination thereof.

5. The composite particulates of claim 1, wherein said high-elasticity polymer matrix further contains from 0.01% to 30% by weight of a graphite, graphene, or carbon material dispersed therein.

6. The composite particulates of claim 5, wherein said graphite, graphene, or carbon material is selected from polymeric carbon, amorphous carbon, chemical vapor deposition carbon, coal tar pitch, petroleum pitch, meso-phase pitch, carbon black, coke, acetylene black, activated carbon, graphite particles, carbon particles, meso-phase microbeads, carbon or graphite fibers, carbon nanotubes, carbon nano-fibers, graphitic nano-fibers, graphene sheets, or a combination thereof and said graphite, graphene, or carbon material forms a 3D network of electron-conducting pathways that are in electronic contacts with said anode material particles.

7. The composite particulates of claim 1, wherein said anode active material is selected from the group consisting of: (a) silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), antimony (Sb), phosphorus (P), bismuth (Bi), zinc (Zn), aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), and cadmium (Cd); (b) alloys or intermetallic compounds of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Ni, Co, or Cd with other elements; (c) oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides, phosphides, selenides, and tellurides of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Fe, Ni, Co, V, or Cd, and their mixtures, composites, or lithium-containing composites; (d) salts and hydroxides of Sn; (e) lithium titanate, lithium manganate, lithium aluminate, lithium titanium niobium oxide, lithium-containing titanium oxide, lithium transition metal oxide, ZnCo.sub.2O.sub.4; (f) carbon or graphite particles (g) prelithiated versions thereof; and (h) combinations thereof.

8. The composite particulates of claim 1, wherein said anode active material contains a prelithiated Si, prelithiated Ge, prelithiated Sn, prelithiated SnO.sub.x, prelithiated SiO.sub.x, prelithiated iron oxide, prelithiated V.sub.2O.sub.5, prelithiated V.sub.3O.sub.8, prelithiated Co.sub.3O.sub.4, prelithiated Ni.sub.3O.sub.4, or a combination thereof, wherein x=1 to 2.

9. The composite particulates of claim 1, wherein said anode active material particles or the composite particulates, or both, are porous.

10. The composite particulates of claim 1, wherein one or a plurality of said particles is coated with a layer of carbon or graphene disposed between said one or said plurality of particles and said high-elasticity polymer matrix.

11. The composite particulates of claim 1, wherein said high-elasticity polymer has a lithium ion conductivity from 10.sup.−6 S/cm to 10.sup.−2 S/cm.

12. The composite particulates of claim 1, wherein said composite particulates are further coated with or encapsulated by a shell of conducting material selected from carbon, graphene, a conducting polymer, a conducting composite, or a combination thereof.

13. The composite particulates of claim 1, wherein the particulate is further coated with or embraced by a conductive protective coating, selected from a carbon material, graphene, electronically conductive polymer, conductive metal oxide, a conductive metal coating, a conducting composite, or a combination thereof.

14. The composite particulates of claim 1, wherein said high-elasticity polymer matrix further comprises from 0.1% to 50% by weight of a lithium ion-conducting additive dispersed therein.

15. The composite particulates of claim 1, wherein said high-elasticity polymer forms a mixture with an elastomer selected from natural polyisoprene, synthetic polyisoprene, polybutadiene, chloroprene rubber, polychloroprene, butyl rubber, styrene-butadiene rubber, nitrile rubber, ethylene propylene rubber, ethylene propylene diene rubber, epichlorohydrin rubber, polyacrylic rubber, silicone rubber, fluorosilicone rubber, perfluoroelastomers, polyether block amides, chlorosulfonated polyethylene, ethylene-vinyl acetate, thermoplastic elastomer, protein resilin, protein elastin, ethylene oxide-epichlorohydrin copolymer, polyurethane, urethane-urea copolymer, or a combination thereof.

16. The composite particulates of claim 1, wherein said high-elasticity polymer matrix contains a lithium ion-conducting additive dispersed therein wherein said lithium ion-conducting additive is selected from Li.sub.2CO.sub.3, Li.sub.2O, Li.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4, LiOH, LiX, ROCO.sub.2Li, HCOLi, ROLi, (ROCO.sub.2Li).sub.2, (CH.sub.2OCO.sub.2Li).sub.2, Li.sub.2S, Li.sub.xSO.sub.y, or a combination thereof, wherein X═F, Cl, I, or Br, R=a hydrocarbon group, 0<x≤1, 1≤y≤4.

17. The composite particulates of claim 1, wherein said high-elasticity polymer matrix contains a lithium ion-conducting additive dispersed therein and said additive is selected from lithium perchlorate (LiClO.sub.4), lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF.sub.6), lithium borofluoride (LiBF.sub.4), lithium hexafluoroarsenide (LiAsF.sub.6), lithium trifluoro-methanesulfonate (LiCF.sub.3SO.sub.3), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium (LiN(CF.sub.3SO.sub.2).sub.2), lithium bis(oxalato)borate (LiBOB), lithium oxalyldifluoroborate (LiBF.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4), lithium nitrate (LiNO.sub.3), Li-fluoroalkyl-phosphate (LiPF.sub.3(CF.sub.2CF.sub.3).sub.3), lithium bisperfluoro-ethylsulfonylimide (LiBETI), lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonimide (LiTFSI), an ionic liquid-based lithium salt, or a combination thereof.

18. The composite particulates of claim 1, wherein said high-elasticity polymer is mixed with an electron-conducting polymer selected from polyaniline, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyfuran, a bi-cyclic polymer, a sulfonated derivative thereof, or a combination thereof.

19. The composite particulates of claim 1, wherein the high-elasticity polymer forms a mixture or blend with a lithium ion-conducting polymer selected from poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), Polypropylene oxide (PPO), poly(acrylonitrile) (PAN), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVdF), Poly bis-methoxy ethoxyethoxide-phosphazenex, Polyvinyl chloride, Polydimethylsiloxane, poly(vinylidene fluoride)-hexafluoropropylene (PVDF-HFP), a sulfonated derivative thereof, or a combination thereof.

20. The composite particulates of claim 1, wherein said anode active material is lithiated to contain from 0.1% to 54.7% by weight of lithium.

21. An anode comprising the composite particulates defined in claim 1 as an anode material.

22. A lithium battery comprising the anode of claim 21, a cathode, and an electrolyte in ionic contact with said anode and said cathode, and an optional porous separator.

23. The lithium battery of claim 22, which is a lithium-ion battery, lithium metal battery, lithium-sulfur battery, lithium-selenium battery, or lithium-air battery.

24. A method of manufacturing the composite particulates of claim 1, said method comprising: (a) Dispersing multiple particles of an anode active material in a precursor polymer solution to form a suspension wherein these particles are fully embedded or immersed in said precursor solution, which comprises a polymer dispersed in a liquid solvent or a liquid mixture of one or a plurality of monomers, an initiator or catalyst, and an optional curing agent; and (b) Operating a secondary particle forming procedure to shape the suspension into multiple droplets and remove the liquid solvent or polymerize and crosslink the monomers to form said composite particulates wherein a particulate comprises a plurality of anode active material particles fully dispersed and embedded in a polymer matrix.

25. The method of claim 24, wherein said secondary particle forming procedure comprises a procedure selected from solution dipping, coating or casting on a solid substrate, pan-coating, air-suspension coating, centrifugal extrusion, vibration-nozzle encapsulation, spray-drying, coacervation-phase separation, interfacial polycondensation or interfacial cross-linking, in-situ polymerization, matrix polymerization, extrusion and palletization, or a combination thereof.

26. The method of claim 24, wherein said suspension in sub process (a) further comprises an elastomer or its precursor, an electronically conductive polymer or its precursor, a lithium-ion conducting material, a reinforcement material, a foaming or blowing agent, or a combination thereof.

27. The method of claim 26, wherein said lithium ion-conducting material is dispersed in said high-elasticity polymer and is selected from Li.sub.2CO.sub.3, Li.sub.2O, Li.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4, LiOH, LiX, ROCO.sub.2Li, HCOLi, ROLi, (ROCO.sub.2Li).sub.2, (CH.sub.2OCO.sub.2Li).sub.2, Li.sub.2S, Li.sub.xSO.sub.y, or a combination thereof, wherein X═F, Cl, I, or Br, R=a hydrocarbon group, 0<x≤1, 1≤y≤4.

28. The method of claim 26, wherein said lithium ion-conducting material is dispersed in said high-elasticity polymer and is selected from lithium perchlorate (LiClO.sub.4), lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF.sub.6), lithium borofluoride (LiBF.sub.4), lithium hexafluoroarsenide (LiAsF.sub.6), lithium trifluoro-methanesulfonate (LiCF.sub.3SO.sub.3), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium (LiN(CF.sub.3SO.sub.2).sub.2), lithium bis(oxalato)borate (LiBOB), lithium oxalyldifluoroborate (LiBF.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4), lithium nitrate (LiNO.sub.3), Li-fluoroalkyl-phosphate (LiPF.sub.3(CF.sub.2CF.sub.3).sub.3), lithium bisperfluoro-ethylsulfonylimide (LiBETI), lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonimide (LiTFSI), an ionic liquid-based lithium salt, or a combination thereof.

29. The method of claim 24, wherein said anode active material particles, prior to sub process (a), are pre-coated with a layer of carbon, graphene, a conducting polymer, a conducting composite, or a combination thereof.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0051] FIG. 1(A) Schematic of a prior art lithium-ion battery cell, wherein the anode layer is a thin coating of an anode active material itself.

[0052] FIG. 1(B) Schematic of another prior art lithium-ion battery; the anode layer being composed of particles of an anode active material, a conductive additive (not shown) and a resin binder (not shown).

[0053] FIG. 2(A) Schematic illustrating the notion that expansion of Si particles, upon lithium intercalation during charging of a prior art lithium-ion battery, can lead to pulverization of Si particles, interruption of the conductive paths formed by the conductive additive, and loss of contact with the current collector;

[0054] FIG. 2(B) illustrates the issues associated with prior art anode active material; for instance, a non-lithiated Si particle encapsulated by a protective shell (e.g. carbon shell) in a core-shell structure inevitably leads to breakage of the shell and that a pre-lithiated Si particle encapsulated with a protective layer leads to poor contact between the contracted Si particle and the rigid protective shell during battery discharge.

[0055] FIG. 3 Schematic of some examples of porous primary particles.

[0056] FIG. 4(A) A flow chart illustrating a method of producing the multi-functional composite particulates according to certain embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0057] FIG. 4(B) Schematic of three types of multi-functional composite particulates according to certain embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0058] FIG. 5(A) Representative tensile stress-strain curves of four BPO-initiated cross-linked ETPTA polymers.

[0059] FIG. 5(B) The specific capacity values of two lithium battery anodes having an anode active material featuring (1) ETPTA polymer matrix-protected Co.sub.3O.sub.4 particles, and (2) un-protected Co.sub.3O.sub.4 particles, respectively.

[0060] FIG. 6(A) Representative tensile stress-strain curves of four PF5-initiated cross-linked PVA-CN polymers.

[0061] FIG. 6(B) The specific capacity values of three lithium-ion batteries having an anode active material featuring (1) high-elasticity polymer matrix-protected, graphene-wrapped SnO.sub.2 particles, (2) graphene-wrapped SnO.sub.2 particles (no polymer matrix), and (3) un-protected SnO.sub.2 particles, respectively.

[0062] FIG. 7 Representative tensile stress-strain curves of three cross-linked PETEA polymers.

[0063] FIG. 8 Specific capacities of 4 lithium-ion cell anodes having Si nanowires (SiNW) as an anode active material: unprotected SiNW, carbon-coated SiNW, high-elasticity polymer matrix-protected SiNW, and high-elasticity polymer matrix-protected carbon-coated SiNW, respectively.

[0064] FIG. 9 Schematic of one possible embodiment of the present disclosure, a battery with an anode, a cathode, an anode current collector, a cathode current collector, and a porous separator, where the electrolyte is in contact with the anode, cathode, and separator.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

[0065] This disclosure provides an anode (negative electrode) comprising composite particulates (each having a plurality of anode active material particles dispersed in a high-elasticity polymer matrix) for a lithium secondary battery, which is preferably a secondary battery based on a non-aqueous electrolyte, a polymer gel electrolyte, an ionic liquid electrolyte, a quasi-solid electrolyte, or a solid-state electrolyte. The shape of a lithium secondary battery can be cylindrical, square, button-like, etc. The present disclosure is not limited to any battery shape or configuration or any type of electrolyte. For convenience, we will primarily use Si, Sn, and SnO.sub.2 as illustrative examples of a high-capacity anode active material. This should not be construed as limiting the scope of the disclosure.

[0066] As illustrated in FIG. 1(B), a lithium-ion battery cell is typically composed of an anode current collector (e.g. Cu foil), an anode or negative electrode active material layer (i.e. anode layer typically containing particles of an anode active material, conductive additive, and binder), a porous separator and/or an electrolyte component, a cathode or positive electrode active material layer (containing a cathode active material, conductive additive, and resin binder), and a cathode current collector (e.g. Al foil). More specifically, the anode layer is composed of particles of an anode active material (e.g. graphite, Sn, SnO.sub.2, or Si), a conductive additive (e.g. carbon black particles), and a resin binder (e.g. SBR or PVDF). This anode layer is typically 50-300 μm thick (more typically 100-200 μm) to give rise to a sufficient amount of current per unit electrode area.

[0067] In a less commonly used cell configuration, as illustrated in FIG. 1(A), the anode active material is deposited in a thin film form directly onto an anode current collector, such as a layer of Si coating deposited on a sheet of copper foil. This is not commonly used in the battery industry and, hence, will not be discussed further.

[0068] In order to obtain a higher energy density cell, the anode in FIG. 1(B) can be designed to contain higher-capacity anode active materials having a composition formula of Li.sub.aA (A is a metal or semiconductor element, such as Al and Si, and “a” satisfies 0<a≤5). These materials are of great interest due to their high theoretical capacity, e.g., Li.sub.4Si (3,829 mAh/g), Li.sub.4.4Si (4,200 mAh/g), Li.sub.4.4Ge (1,623 mAh/g), Li.sub.4.4Sn (993 mAh/g), Li.sub.3Cd (715 mAh/g), Li.sub.3Sb (660 mAh/g), Li.sub.4.4Pb (569 mAh/g), LiZn (410 mAh/g), and Li.sub.3Bi (385 mAh/g). However, as discussed in the Background section, there are several problems associated with the implementation of these high-capacity anode active materials: [0069] 1) As schematically illustrated in FIG. 2(A), in an anode composed of these high-capacity materials, severe pulverization (fragmentation of the alloy particles) occurs during the charge and discharge cycles due to severe expansion and contraction of the anode active material particles induced by the insertion and extraction of the lithium ions in and out of these particles. The expansion and contraction, and the resulting pulverization, of active material particles, lead to loss of contacts between active material particles and conductive additives and loss of contacts between the anode active material and its current collector. These adverse effects result in a significantly shortened charge-discharge cycle life. [0070] 2) The approach of using a composite composed of small electrode active particles protected by (dispersed in or encapsulated by) a less active or non-active matrix, e.g., carbon-coated Si particles, sol gel graphite-protected Si, metal oxide-coated Si or Sn, and monomer-coated Sn nano particles, has failed to overcome the capacity decay problem. Presumably, the protective matrix provides a cushioning effect for particle expansion or shrinkage, and prevents the electrolyte from contacting and reacting with the electrode active material. Unfortunately, when an active material particle, such as Si particle, expands (e.g. up to a volume expansion of 380%) during the battery charge step, the protective coating is easily broken due to the mechanical weakness and/o brittleness of the protective coating materials. There has been no high-strength and high-toughness material available that is itself also lithium ion conductive. [0071] 3) The approach of using a core-shell structure (e.g. Si nano particle encapsulated in a carbon or SiO.sub.2 shell) also has not solved the capacity decay issue. As illustrated in upper portion of FIG. 2(B), a non-lithiated Si particle can be encapsulated by a carbon shell to form a core-shell structure (Si core and carbon or SiO.sub.2 shell in this example). As the lithium-ion battery is charged, the anode active material (carbon- or SiO.sub.2-encapsulated Si particle) is intercalated with lithium ions and, hence, the Si particle expands. Due to the brittleness of the encapsulating shell (carbon), the shell is broken into segments, exposing the underlying Si to electrolyte and subjecting the Si to undesirable reactions with electrolyte during repeated charges/discharges of the battery. These reactions continue to consume the electrolyte and reduce the cell's ability to store lithium ions. [0072] 4) Referring to the lower portion of FIG. 2(B), wherein the Si particle has been pre-lithiated with lithium ions; i.e. has been pre-expanded in volume. When a layer of carbon (as an example of a protective material) is encapsulated around the pre-lithiated Si particle, another core-shell structure is formed. However, when the battery is discharged and lithium ions are released (de-intercalated) from the Si particle, the Si particle contracts, leaving behind a large gap between the protective shell and the Si particle. Such a configuration is not conducive to lithium intercalation of the Si particle during the subsequent battery charge cycle due to the gap and the poor contact of Si particle with the protective shell (through which lithium ions can diffuse). This would significantly curtail the lithium storage capacity of the Si particle particularly under high charge rate conditions.

[0073] In other words, there are several conflicting factors that must be considered concurrently when it comes to the design and selection of an anode active material in terms of material type, shape, size, porosity, and electrode layer thickness. Thus far, there has been no effective solution offered by any prior art teaching to these often conflicting problems. We have solved these challenging issues that have troubled battery designers and electrochemists alike for more than 30 years by developing the multi-functional composite particulates.

[0074] FIG. 9 shows an embodiment of the present disclosure. Shown is a battery with an anode, a cathode, an anode current collector, a cathode current collector, and a porous separator, where the electrolyte is in contact with the anode, cathode, and separator.

[0075] The present disclosure provides a solid powder mass of multi-functional composite particulates for a lithium battery, wherein at least one of the composite particulates (preferably a majority or all of these particulates or “secondary particles”) has a diameter from 50 nm to 50 μm and comprises a plurality of anode active material particles (the “primary particles”) that are dispersed in a high-elasticity polymer matrix having a recoverable tensile strain no less than 5% (typically from 5% to 700% and more typically from 10% to 300%), when measured without an additive or reinforcement, and a lithium ion conductivity no less than 10.sup.−8 S/cm (preferably >10.sup.−4 S/cm, more preferably >10.sup.−3 S/cm) when measured at room temperature, wherein the polymer matrix forms a continuous material phase. This continuous phase makes physical and ionic contact with all the anode active material particles dispersed in this continuous phase (matrix).

[0076] In certain desired embodiments, the high-elasticity polymer matrix contains a cross-linked network of polymer chains.

[0077] High-elasticity polymer refers to a polymer, typically a lightly cross-linked polymer, which exhibits an elastic deformation that is at least 5% when measured (without an additive or reinforcement in the polymer) under uniaxial tension. In the field of materials science and engineering, the “elastic deformation” is defined as a deformation of a material (when being mechanically stressed) that is essentially fully recoverable and the recovery is essentially instantaneous upon release of the load. The elastic deformation is preferably greater than 30%, more preferably greater than 50%, further more preferably greater than 100%, still more preferably greater than 150%, and most preferably greater than 200%. The preferred types of high-capacity polymers will be discussed later.

[0078] Three examples of the disclosed composite particulates are illustrated in FIG. 4(B). The first one comprises multiple anode active material particles 34 (e.g. Si nano particles) and a 3D network of electron-conducting pathways 36 (constituted by CNTs, graphene sheets, CNFs, expanded graphite flakes, etc.) that are dispersed in a high-elasticity polymer matrix 32. The second particulate comprises multiple anode active material particles 44 (e.g. Si nano particles) that are coated by a shell 48 of a conducting material. The composite particulate also comprises pores 50 and a 3D network of electron-conducting pathways 46 (constituted by CNTs, graphene sheets, CNFs, expanded graphite flakes, etc.) that are dispersed in a high-elasticity polymer matrix 42. The third particulate is similar to the first one, but further comprises a conductive protection shell or coating 52 (carbon, graphene, conducting polymer, etc.) deposited on the particulate surface. These anode active material particles can be pre-lithiated or non-prelithiated.

[0079] The primary particles themselves may be porous having porosity in the form of surface pores and/or internal pores. FIG. 3 shows some examples of porous primary particles of an anode active material. These pores of the primary particles allow the particle to expand into the free space without a significant overall volume increase of the particulate and without inducing any significant volume expansion of the entire anode electrode.

[0080] This amount of pore volume inside the particulate (surface or internal pores of porous primary anode particles) provides empty space to accommodate the volume expansion of the anode active material so that the polymer matrix and the entire composite particulate would not have to significantly expand (not to exceed 50% volume expansion of the particulate) when the lithium battery is charged. Preferably, the composite particulate does not increase its volume by more than 20%, further preferably less than 10% and most preferably by approximately 0% when the lithium battery is charged. Such a constrained volume expansion of the particulate would not only reduce or eliminate the volume expansion of the anode electrode but also reduce or eliminate the issue of repeated formation and destruction of a solid-electrolyte interface (SEI) phase. We have discovered that this strategy surprisingly results in significantly reduced battery capacity decay rate and dramatically increased charge/discharge cycle numbers. These results are unexpected and highly significant with great utility value.

[0081] Multiple non-lithiated Si particle can be dispersed in a high-elasticity polymer matrix to form a composite particulate. As the lithium-ion battery is charged, the anode active material particles (e.g. si) are intercalated with lithium ions and, hence, the Si particle expands. Due to the high elasticity of the matrix polymer, the matrix will simply expand accordingly without breaking up into pieces. That the high-elasticity polymer matrix remains intact prevents the exposure of the embedded Si particles to liquid electrolyte and, thus, prevents the Si from undergoing undesirable reactions with electrolyte during repeated charges/discharges of the battery. This strategy prevents continued consumption of the electrolyte to form additional SEI.

[0082] The particulate may further contain a graphite, graphene, and/or carbon material dispersed in the high-elasticity polymer matrix. The carbon or graphite material may be selected from polymeric carbon, amorphous carbon, chemical vapor deposition carbon, coal tar pitch, petroleum pitch, meso-phase pitch, carbon black, coke, acetylene black, activated carbon, fine expanded graphite particle with a dimension smaller than 100 nm, artificial graphite particle, natural graphite particle, carbon nano-tubes (single-walled or multi-walled), carbon nano-fibers (vapor-grown or carbonized polymer fibers), graphitic nano-fibers, graphene sheets, or a combination thereof. Graphene may be selected from pristine graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, graphene fluoride, hydrogenated graphene, nitrogenated graphene, functionalized graphene, etc.

[0083] The carbon/graphite/graphene particles, fibers, nanotubes, and/or nano sheets dispersed in the high-elasticity polymer preferably and typically constitute a 3D network of electron-conducting paths that preferably are in contact with individual primary particles of the anode active material. The high-elasticity polymer matrix, being a continuous phase and making contact with individual primary particles (being substantially totally immersed in the polymer matrix) provide a 3D network of lithium ion-conducting paths. In other words, there are dual networks of conducting pathways for electrons and lithium ions inside the multi-functional composite particulate.

[0084] The anode active material may be selected from the group consisting of: (a) silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), antimony (Sb), phosphorus (P), bismuth (Bi), zinc (Zn), aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), and cadmium (Cd); (b) alloys or intermetallic compounds of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Ni, Co, or Cd with other elements; (c) oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides, phosphides, selenides, and tellurides of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Fe, Ni, Co, V, or Cd, and their mixtures, composites, or lithium-containing composites; (d) salts and hydroxides of Sn; (e) lithium titanate, lithium manganate, lithium aluminate, lithium titanium niobium oxide, lithium-containing titanium oxide, lithium transition metal oxide, ZnCo.sub.2O.sub.4; (f) carbon or graphite particles (g) prelithiated versions thereof; and (h) combinations thereof.

[0085] Pre-lithiation of an anode active material can be conducted by several methods (chemical intercalation, ion implementation, and electrochemical intercalation). Among these, the electrochemical intercalation is the most effective. Lithium ions can be intercalated into non-Li elements (e.g. Si, Ge, and Sn) and compounds (e.g. SnO.sub.2 and Co.sub.3O.sub.4) up to a weight percentage of 54.68% (see Table 1 below). For Zn, Mg, Ag, and Au encapsulated inside an elastomer shell, the amount of Li can reach 99% by weight.

TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Lithium storage capacity of selected non-Li elements. Intercalated Atomic weight Atomic weight of Max. wt. % compound of Li, g/mole active material, g/mole of Li Li.sub.4Si 6.941 28.086 49.71 Li.sub.4.4Si 6.941 28.086 54.68 Li.sub.4.4Ge 6.941 72.61 30.43 Li4.4Sn 6.941 118.71 20.85 Li.sub.3Cd 6.941 112.411 14.86 Li.sub.3Sb 6.941 121.76 13.93 Li.sub.4.4Pb 6.941 207.2 13.00 LiZn 6.941 65.39 7.45 Li.sub.3Bi 6.941 208.98 8.80

[0086] The particles of the anode active material may be in the form of a nano particle, nano wire, nano fiber, nano tube, nano sheet, nano platelet, nano disc, nano belt, nano ribbon, or nano horn. They can be non-lithiated (when incorporated into the anode active material layer) or pre-lithiated to a desired extent (up to the maximum capacity as allowed for a specific element or compound.

[0087] Preferably and typically, the high-elasticity polymer matrix has a lithium ion conductivity no less than 10.sup.−5 S/cm, more preferably no less than 10.sup.−4 S/cm, further preferably no less than 10.sup.−3 S/cm, and most preferably no less than 10.sup.−2 S/cm. In some embodiments, the high-elasticity polymer is a neat polymer having no additive or filler dispersed therein. In others, the high-elasticity polymer is a polymer matrix composite containing from 0.1% to 50% (preferably 1% to 35%) by weight of a lithium ion-conducting additive dispersed in the high-elasticity polymer matrix material. The high-elasticity polymer must have a high elasticity (elastic deformation strain value >5%). An elastic deformation is a deformation that is fully recoverable and the recovery process is essentially instantaneous (no significant time delay). The high-capacity polymer can exhibit an elastic deformation from 5% up to 1,000% (10 times of its original length), more typically from 10% to 800%, and further more typically from 50% to 500%, and most typically and desirably from 70% to 300%. It may be noted that although a metal typically has a high ductility (i.e. can be extended to a large extent without breakage), the majority of the deformation is plastic deformation (non-recoverable) and only a small amount of elastic deformation (typically <1% and more typically <0.2%).

[0088] In some preferred embodiments, the high-elasticity polymer contains a lightly cross-linked network polymer chains having an ether linkage, nitrile-derived linkage, benzo peroxide-derived linkage, ethylene oxide linkage, propylene oxide linkage, vinyl alcohol linkage, cyano-resin linkage, triacrylate monomer-derived linkage, tetraacrylate monomer-derived linkage, or a combination thereof, in the cross-linked network of polymer chains. These network or cross-linked polymers exhibit a unique combination of a high elasticity (high elastic deformation strain) and high lithium-ion conductivity.

[0089] In certain preferred embodiments, the high-elasticity polymer contains a lightly cross-linked network polymer chains selected from nitrile-containing polyvinyl alcohol chains, cyanoresin chains, pentaerythritol tetraacrylate (PETEA) chains, pentaerythritol triacrylate chains, ethoxylated trimethylolpropane triacrylate (ETPTA) chains, ethylene glycol methyl ether acrylate (EGMEA) chains, polyurethan chains, urethane-urea chains, or a combination thereof.

[0090] Typically, a high-elasticity polymer is originally in a monomer or oligomer states that can be cured to form a cross-linked polymer that is highly elastic. Prior to curing, these polymers or oligomers are soluble in an organic solvent to form a polymer solution. Particles of an anode active material (e.g. SnO.sub.2 nano particles and Si nano-wires) can be dispersed in this polymer solution to form a suspension (dispersion or slurry) of an active material particle-polymer (monomer or oligomer) mixture. This suspension can then be subjected to a solvent removal treatment. The polymer (or monomer or oligomer) precipitates out to form a continuous phase or matrix in which the active material primary particles are dispersed. This can be accomplished, for instance, via solution dipping, coating or casting on a solid substrate surface, spray drying, ultrasonic spraying, air-assisted spraying, aerosolization, and other secondary particle formation procedures.

[0091] For instance, ethoxylated trimethylopropane triacrylate monomer (ETPTA, Mw=428, chemical formula given below), along with an initiator, can be dissolved in an organic solvent, such as ethylene carbonate (EC) or diethyl carbonate (DEC). Then, anode active material particles (Si, Sn, SnO.sub.2, and Co.sub.3O.sub.4 particles, etc.) can be dispersed in the ETPTA monomer/solvent/initiator solution to form a suspension, which can be spray-dried to form ETPTA monomer/initiator-embraced anode particles. These embedded particles can then be thermally cured to obtain the composite particulates comprising anode particles dispersed in a matrix of a high-elasticity polymer. The polymerization and cross-linking reactions of this monomer can be initiated by a radical initiator derived from benzoyl peroxide (BPO) or AIBN through thermal decomposition of the initiator molecule. The ETPTA monomer has the following chemical formula:

##STR00001##

[0092] As another example, the high-elasticity polymer as a composite matrix may be based on cationic polymerization and cross-linking of the cyanoethyl polyvinyl alcohol (PVA-CN, Formula 2) in succinonitrile (SN).

##STR00002##

[0093] The procedure may begin with dissolving PVA-CN in succinonitrile (NCCH.sub.2CH.sub.2CN) to form a mixture solution. This is followed by adding an initiator into the mixture solution. For instance, LiPF.sub.6 can be added into the PVA-CN/SN mixture solution at a weight ratio (selected from the preferred range from 20:1 to 2:1) to form a precursor solution. Then, particles of a selected anode active material are introduced into the mixture solution to form a slurry or suspension. The slurry may then be subjected to a micro-droplet forming procedure to produce composite droplets of anode active material particles dispersed in a reacting mass, PVA-CN/LiPF.sub.6. These composite droplets can then be heated at a temperature (e.g. from 75 to 100° C.) for 2 to 8 hours to obtain high-elasticity polymer composite particulates. During this process, cationic polymerization and cross-linking of cyano groups on the PVA-CN may be initiated by PF.sub.5, which is derived from the thermal decomposition of LiPF.sub.6 at such an elevated temperature.

[0094] It is essential for these materials to form a lightly cross-linked network of polymer chains. In other words, the network polymer or cross-linked polymer should have a relatively low degree of cross-linking or low cross-link density to impart a high elastic deformation.

[0095] The cross-link density of a cross-linked network of polymer chains may be defined as the inverse of the molecular weight between cross-links (Mc). The cross-link density can be determined by the equation, Mc=ρRT/Ge, where Ge is the equilibrium modulus as determined by a temperature sweep in dynamic mechanical analysis, ρ is the physical density, R is the universal gas constant in J/mol*K and T is absolute temperature in K. Once Ge and ρ are determined experimentally, then Mc and the cross-link density can be calculated.

[0096] The magnitude of Mc may be normalized by dividing the Mc value by the molecular weight of the characteristic repeat unit in the cross-link chain or chain linkage to obtain a number, Nc, which is the number of repeating units between two cross-link points. We have found that the elastic deformation strain correlates very well with Mc and Nc. The elasticity of a cross-linked polymer derives from a large number of repeating units (large Nc) between cross-links. The repeating units can assume a more relax conformation (e.g. random coil) when the polymer is not stressed. However, when the polymer is mechanically stressed, the linkage chain uncoils or gets stretched to provide a large deformation. A long chain linkage between cross-link points (larger Nc) enables a larger elastic deformation. Upon release of the load, the linkage chain returns to the more relaxed or coiled state. During mechanical loading of a polymer, the cross-links prevent slippage of chains that otherwise form plastic deformation (non-recoverable).

[0097] Preferably, the Nc value in a high-elasticity polymer is greater than 5, more preferably greater than 10, further more preferably greater than 100, and even more preferably greater than 200. These Nc values can be readily controlled and varied to achieve different elastic deformation values by using different cross-linking agents with different functionalities, and by designing the polymerization and cross-linking reactions to proceed at different temperatures for different periods of time.

[0098] Alternatively, Mooney-Rilvin method may be used to determine the degree of cross-linking. Crosslinking also can be measured by swelling experiments. In a swelling experiment, the crosslinked sample is placed into a good solvent for the corresponding linear polymer at a specific temperature, and either the change in mass or the change in volume is measured. The higher the degree of crosslinking, the less swelling is attainable. Based on the degree of swelling, the Flory Interaction Parameter (which relates the solvent interaction with the sample, Flory Huggins Eq.), and the density of the solvent, the theoretical degree of crosslinking can be calculated according to Flory's Network Theory. The Flory-Rehner Equation can be useful in the determination of cross-linking.

[0099] The high-elasticity polymer matrix may contain a simultaneous interpenetrating network (SIN) polymer, wherein two cross-linking chains intertwine with each other, or a semi-interpenetrating network polymer (semi-IPN), which contains a cross-linked polymer and a linear polymer. An example of semi-IPN is an UV-curable/polymerizable trivalent/monovalent acrylate mixture, which is composed of ethoxylated trimethylolpropane triacrylate (ETPTA) and ethylene glycol methyl ether acrylate (EGMEA) oligomers. The ETPTA, bearing trivalent vinyl groups, is a photo (UV)-crosslinkable monomer, capable of forming a network of cross-linked chains. The EGMEA, bearing monovalent vinyl groups, is also UV-polymerizable, leading to a linear polymer with a high flexibility due to the presence of the oligomer ethylene oxide units.

[0100] When the degree of cross-linking of ETPTA is moderate or low, the resulting ETPTA/EGMEA semi-IPN polymer provides good mechanical flexibility or elasticity and reasonable mechanical strength. The lithium-ion conductivity of this polymer is in the range from 10.sup.−4 to 5×10.sup.−3 S/cm.

[0101] The aforementioned high-elasticity polymers may be used alone to serve as a matrix. Alternatively, the high-elasticity polymer can be mixed with a broad array of elastomers, electrically conducting polymers, lithium ion-conducting materials, and/or strengthening materials (e.g. carbon nanotube, carbon nano-fiber, or graphene sheets).

[0102] A broad array of elastomers can be mixed with a high-elasticity polymer. Substantially all the anode primary particles in a particulate are fully embedded in and surrounded by the polymer, preventing direct contact between the particle(s) and the liquid electrolyte in the battery.

[0103] The high-elasticity polymer may contain an elastomeric material selected from natural polyisoprene (e.g. cis-1,4-polyisoprene natural rubber (NR) and trans-1,4-polyisoprene gutta-percha), synthetic polyisoprene (IR for isoprene rubber), polybutadiene (BR for butadiene rubber), chloroprene rubber (CR), polychloroprene (e.g. Neoprene, Baypren etc.), butyl rubber (copolymer of isobutylene and isoprene, IIR), including halogenated butyl rubbers (chloro butyl rubber (CIIR) and bromo butyl rubber (BIIR), styrene-butadiene rubber (copolymer of styrene and butadiene, SBR), nitrile rubber (copolymer of butadiene and acrylonitrile, NBR), EPM (ethylene propylene rubber, a copolymer of ethylene and propylene), EPDM rubber (ethylene propylene diene rubber, a terpolymer of ethylene, propylene and a diene-component), epichlorohydrin rubber (ECO), polyacrylic rubber (ACM, ABR), silicone rubber (SI, Q, VMQ), fluorosilicone rubber (FVMQ), fluoroelastomers (FKM, and FEPM; such as Viton, Tecnoflon, Fluorel, Aflas and Dai-El), perfluoroelastomers (FFKM: Tecnoflon PFR, Kalrez, Chemraz, Perlast), polyether block amides (PEBA), chlorosulfonated polyethylene (CSM; e.g. Hypalon), and ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA), thermoplastic elastomers (TPE), protein resilin, protein elastin, ethylene oxide-epichlorohydrin copolymer, polyurethane, urethane-urea copolymer, and combinations thereof.

[0104] The urethane-urea copolymer usually consists of two types of domains, soft domains and hard ones. Entangled linear backbone chains consisting of poly(tetramethylene ether) glycol (PTMEG) units constitute the soft domains, while repeated methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) and ethylene diamine (EDA) units constitute the hard domains. The lithium ion-conducting additive can be incorporated in the soft domains or other more amorphous zones.

[0105] In some embodiments, a high-elasticity polymer can form a polymer matrix composite containing a lithium ion-conducting additive dispersed in the high-elasticity polymer matrix material, wherein the lithium ion-conducting additive is selected from Li.sub.2CO.sub.3, Li.sub.2O, Li.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4, LiOH, LiX, ROCO.sub.2Li, HCOLi, ROLi, (ROCO.sub.2Li).sub.2, (CH.sub.2OCO.sub.2Li).sub.2, Li.sub.2S, Li.sub.xSO.sub.y, or a combination thereof, wherein X═F, Cl, I, or Br, R=a hydrocarbon group, 0<x≤1, 1≤y≤4.

[0106] In some embodiments, the high-elasticity polymer can be mixed with a lithium ion-conducting additive, which contains a lithium salt selected from lithium perchlorate (LiClO.sub.4), lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF.sub.6), lithium borofluoride (LiBF.sub.4), lithium hexafluoroarsenide (LiAsF.sub.6), lithium trifluoro-methanesulfonate (LiCF.sub.3SO.sub.3), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium (LiN(CF.sub.3SO.sub.2).sub.2), lithium bis(oxalato)borate (LiBOB), lithium oxalyldifluoroborate (LiBF.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4), lithium nitrate (LiNO.sub.3), Li-fluoroalkyl-phosphate (LiPF.sub.3(CF.sub.2CF.sub.3).sub.3), lithium bisperfluoro-ethylsulfonylimide (LiBETI), lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonimide (LiTFSI), an ionic liquid-based lithium salt, or a combination thereof.

[0107] The high-elasticity polymer may form a mixture or blend with an electron-conducting polymer selected from polyaniline, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyfuran, a bi-cyclic polymer, derivatives thereof (e.g. sulfonated versions), or a combination thereof.

[0108] In some embodiments, the high-elasticity polymer may form a mixture with a lithium ion-conducting polymer selected from poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), Polypropylene oxide (PPO), poly(acrylonitrile) (PAN), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVdF), Poly bis-methoxy ethoxyethoxide-phosphazenex, Polyvinyl chloride, Polydimethylsiloxane, poly(vinylidene fluoride)-hexafluoropropylene (PVDF-HFP), a derivative thereof (e.g. sulfonated versions), or a combination thereof.

[0109] Unsaturated rubbers that can be vulcanized to become elastomer include natural polyisoprene (e.g. cis-1,4-polyisoprene natural rubber (NR) and trans-1,4-polyisoprene gutta-percha), synthetic polyisoprene (IR for isoprene rubber), polybutadiene (BR for butadiene rubber), chloroprene rubber (CR), polychloroprene (e.g. Neoprene, Baypren etc.), butyl rubber (copolymer of isobutylene and isoprene, IIR), including halogenated butyl rubbers (chloro butyl rubber (CIIR) and bromo butyl rubber (BIIR), styrene-butadiene rubber (copolymer of styrene and butadiene, SBR), nitrile rubber (copolymer of butadiene and acrylonitrile, NBR),

[0110] Some elastomers are saturated rubbers that cannot be cured by sulfur vulcanization; they are made into a rubbery or elastomeric material via different means: e.g. by having a copolymer domain that holds other linear chains together. Each of these elastomers can be used as a matrix.

[0111] Polyurethane and its copolymers (e.g. urea-urethane copolymer) are particularly useful elastomeric matrix materials for protecting anode active material particles.

[0112] The present disclosure also provides a method of producing multi-functional composite particulates comprising anode active material particles dispersed in a high-elasticity polymer. As schematically illustrated in FIG. 4(A), the method comprises mixing reactants (monomer, initiator, and optional curing or crosslinking agent), primary particles of an anode active material, optional reinforcement material, and optional lithium ion-conducting additive to form a reactive slurry. One may mix these ingredients sequentially or concurrently. For instance, one may mix all of these ingredients to form the reactive slurry in one pot (one container) all at once and then rapidly form the reactive slurry into micro-droplets, allowing the reactants to react with one another for polymerizing and crosslinking to form the conductive networks of crosslinked polymer chains. The anode active material particles are dispersed in the polymer.

[0113] Alternatively, one may first mix certain ingredient(s) in one pot and other ingredients in other pot(s) and then combine them together in one pot. For instance, one may mix the monomer and the initiator in one pot, allowing the mixture to proceed to form a reactive oligomer (low molecular weight chains). A separate pot may be used to contain the curing agent (crosslinker). The primary particles of anode active material and other ingredients may be dispersed into either pot or both pots. The ingredients in two pots are then combined together and then heated or radiation-exposed to initiate the polymerization and crosslinking reactions (if appropriate).

[0114] The present disclosure also provides a method of manufacturing the multi-functional composite particulates described above, the method comprising: (a) dispersing multiple particles of an anode active material in a precursor polymer solution to form a suspension wherein these particles are fully embedded or immersed in the precursor solution, which comprises a polymer dispersed in a liquid solvent or a liquid mixture of one or a plurality of monomers, an initiator or catalyst, and an optional curing agent (cross-linking agent); and (b) operating a secondary particle-forming procedure to shape the suspension into multiple droplets and to remove the liquid solvent or polymerize and crosslink the monomers to form the composite particulates wherein a particulate comprises a plurality of anode active material particles fully dispersed and embedded in a high-elasticity polymer matrix.

[0115] Several composite droplet forming processes require the high-elasticity polymer or its precursor (monomer or oligomer) to be dissolvable in a solvent. Fortunately, all the high-elasticity polymers or their precursors used herein are soluble in some common solvents. The un-cured polymer or its precursor can be readily dissolved in a common organic solvent to form a solution. This solution can then be used to embed/immerse/engulf the solid particles (anode particles along with other additive or reinforcement materials) via several of the micro-droplet-forming methods to be discussed in what follows. Upon formation of the droplets, the polymer matrix is then polymerized and cross-linked.

[0116] There are three broad categories of micro-encapsulation methods that can be implemented to produce high-elasticity polymer composite: physical methods, physico-chemical methods, and chemical methods. The physical methods include extrusion and pelletizing, solution dipping and drying, suspension coating or casting on a solid substrate (e.g. slot-die coating, Comma coating, spray-coating) followed by drying and scratching off particles from the substrate, pan-coating, air-suspension coating, centrifugal extrusion, vibration nozzle, and spray-drying methods. The physico-chemical methods include ionotropic gelation and coacervation-phase separation methods. The chemical methods include interfacial polycondensation, interfacial cross-linking, in-situ polymerization, and matrix polymerization.

[0117] It may be noted that some of these methods (e.g. pan-coating, air-suspension coating, and spray-drying) may be used to coat or encapsulate primary particles or particulates (secondary particles) by adjusting the solid content, degree of dispersion, spraying and drying conditions, etc. Similar processes may be used to produce composite particulates wherein the particles are fully dispersed in a polymer matrix, not just coating on some surfaces. This can be accomplished by providing a higher amount of the reacting monomer, oligomer, or polymer with respect to the anode particles, for instance.

[0118] Pan-coating method: The pan coating process involves tumbling the anode active material primary particles (along with any desired additive or reinforcement materials) in a pan or a similar device while the matrix material (e.g. monomer/oligomer liquid or uncured polymer/solvent solution; possibly containing a lithium salt dispersed or dissolved therein) is applied slowly until a desired amount of matrix is attained.

[0119] Air-suspension coating method: In the air suspension coating process, the solid primary particles of anode active material are dispersed into the supporting air stream in an embedding chamber. A controlled stream of a reactive precursor solution (e.g. polymer or its monomer or oligomer dissolved in a solvent; or its monomer or oligomer alone in a liquid state) is concurrently introduced into this chamber, allowing the solution to hit and embed the suspended particles. These suspended particles are embedded in the reactive precursor (monomer, oligomer, etc. which is polymerized/cured concurrently or subsequently) while the volatile solvent is removed, leaving behind a composite comprising a matrix of conducting network polymer and anode active material particles. This process may be repeated several times until the required parameters, such as full embedding, are achieved. The air stream which supports the anode particles also helps to dry them, and the rate of drying is directly proportional to the temperature of the air stream, which can be adjusted for optimized polymer network amount.

[0120] In a preferred mode, the particles in the embedding zone portion may be subjected to re-circulation for repeated embedding. Preferably, the chamber is arranged such that the particles pass upwards through the embedding zone, then are dispersed into slower moving air and sink back to the base of the encapsulating chamber, enabling repeated passes of the particles through the embedding zone until the desired matrix amount is achieved.

[0121] Centrifugal extrusion: Primary anode particles may be embedded in a polymer network or precursor material using a rotating extrusion head containing concentric nozzles. In this process, a stream of core fluid (slurry containing anode particles dispersed in a solvent) is surrounded by a sheath of shell solution or melt containing the polymer or precursor. As the device rotates and the stream moves through the air it breaks, due to Rayleigh instability, into droplets of core, each coated with the shell solution. While the droplets are in flight, the molten shell may be hardened or the solvent may be evaporated from the shell solution. If needed, the capsules can be hardened after formation by catching them in a hardening bath. Since the drops are formed by the breakup of a liquid stream, the process is only suitable for liquid or slurry. A high production rate can be achieved. Up to 22.5 kg of microcapsules can be produced per nozzle per hour and extrusion heads containing 16 nozzles are readily available.

[0122] Vibrational nozzle encapsulation method: matrix-encapsulation of anode particles can be conducted using a laminar flow through a nozzle and vibration of the nozzle or the liquid. The vibration has to be done in resonance with the Rayleigh instability, leading to very uniform droplets. The liquid can consist of any liquids with limited viscosities (1-50,000 mPa.Math.s): emulsions, suspensions or slurry containing the anode active material particles and the polymer or precursor.

[0123] Spray-drying: Spray drying may be used to encapsulate and embed anode particles when the particles are suspended in a melt or polymer/precursor solution to form a suspension. In spray drying, the liquid feed (solution or suspension) is atomized to form droplets which, upon contacts with hot gas, allow solvent to get vaporized and a polymer matrix to fully embed the particles.

[0124] Coacervation-phase separation: This process consists of three steps carried out under continuous agitation: [0125] (a) Formation of three immiscible chemical phases: liquid manufacturing vehicle phase, core material phase and encapsulation material phase. The anode primary particles are dispersed in a solution of the encapsulating polymer or precursor. The encapsulating material phase, which is an immiscible polymer in liquid state, is formed by (i) changing temperature in polymer solution, (ii) addition of salt, (iii) addition of non-solvent, or (iv) addition of an incompatible polymer in the polymer solution. [0126] (b) Deposition of encapsulation material: anode particles being dispersed in the encapsulating polymer solution, encapsulating polymer/precursor coated around anode particles, and deposition of liquid polymer embracing around anode particles by polymer adsorbed at the interface formed between core material and vehicle phase; and [0127] (c) Hardening of encapsulating shell material: shell material being immiscible in vehicle phase and made rigid via thermal, cross-linking, or dissolution techniques.

[0128] Interfacial polycondensation and interfacial cross-linking: Interfacial polycondensation entails introducing the two reactants to meet at the interface where they react with each other. This is based on the concept of the Schotten-Baumann reaction between an acid chloride and a compound containing an active hydrogen atom (such as an amine or alcohol), polyester, polyurea, polyurethane, or urea-urethane condensation. Under proper conditions, thin flexible encapsulating shell (wall) forms rapidly at the interface. A suspension of the anode particles and a diacid chloride are emulsified in water and an aqueous solution containing an amine and a polyfunctional isocyanate is added. A base may be added to neutralize the acid formed during the reaction. Condensed polymer shells form instantaneously at the interface of the emulsion droplets. Interfacial cross-linking is derived from interfacial polycondensation, wherein cross-linking occurs between growing polymer chains and a multi-functional chemical groups to form a polymer shell material.

[0129] In-situ polymerization: In some micro-encapsulation processes, anode particles are fully embedded in a monomer or oligomer first. Then, direct polymerization of the monomer or oligomer is carried out with the presence of these material particles dispersed therein.

[0130] Matrix polymerization: This method involves dispersing and embedding anode primary particles in a polymeric matrix during formation of the particles. This can be accomplished via spray-drying, in which the particles are formed by evaporation of the solvent from the matrix material. Another possible route is the notion that the solidification of the matrix is caused by a chemical change.

[0131] In summary, in certain embodiments, the disclosure provides a method of producing the multi-functional particulates, the method comprising (A) dispersing a plurality of primary particles of an anode active material, having a diameter or thickness from 0.5 nm to 20 μm, in a liquid mixture of a monomer or oligomer for a conjugated polymer, an initiator, and a cross-linking agent to form a reactive slurry; (B) forming the reactive slurry into micro-droplets and polymerizing and curing the monomer or oligomer in the micro-droplets to form the multi-functional particulates. The reactive mixture may further comprise a dopant, a reinforcement material, a lithium ion-conducting additive, an electron-conducting additive, or a combination thereof.

[0132] A foaming agent or blowing agent may be introduced into the reactive slurry and can be activated to produce pores in the micro-droplets when the reactive species are polymerized or crosslinked.

[0133] In some embodiments, the reactive slurry further comprises a high-strength material selected from carbon nanotubes, carbon nano-fibers, carbon or graphite fibers, graphene sheets, expanded graphite flakes, polymer fibrils, glass fibers, ceramic fibers, metal filaments or metal nano-wires, or a combination thereof. Some of these high-strength materials are electron-conducting.

[0134] The step (B) of forming micro-droplets may comprise a procedure selected from solution dipping, coating or casting on a solid substrate, pan-coating, air-suspension coating, centrifugal extrusion, vibration-nozzle encapsulation, spray-drying, coacervation-phase separation, interfacial polycondensation or interfacial cross-linking, in-situ polymerization, matrix polymerization, extrusion and palletization, or a combination thereof.

[0135] In certain embodiments, the micro-droplets as formed may contain water or a liquid solvent and the method further comprises a step of removing water or solvent.

[0136] The following examples serve to provide the best modes of practice for the present disclosure and should not be construed as limiting the scope of the disclosure:

Example 1: Composite Particulates Containing High-Elasticity Polymer Matrix-Protected Cobalt Oxide (Co.SUB.3.O.SUB.4.) Anode Particles

[0137] An appropriate amount of inorganic salts Co(NO.sub.3).sub.2.6H.sub.2O and ammonia solution (NH.sub.3.H.sub.2O, 25 wt. %) were mixed together. The resulting suspension was stirred for several hours under an argon flow to ensure a complete reaction. The obtained Co(OH).sub.2 precursor suspension was calcined at 450° C. in air for 2 h to form particles of the layered Co.sub.3O.sub.4. Portion of the Co.sub.3O.sub.4 particles was then encapsulated with an ETPTA-based high-elasticity polymer according to the following procedure:

[0138] The ethoxylated trimethylopropane triacrylate monomer (ETPTA, Mw=428, Sigma-Aldrich) was dissolved in a solvent mixture of ethylene carbonate (EC)/diethyl carbonate (DEC), at a weight-based composition ratios of the ETPTA/solvent of 3/97 (w/w). Subsequently, benzoyl peroxide (BPO, 1.0 wt. % relative to the ETPTA content) was added as a radical initiator to allow for later thermal crosslinking reaction after mixing with anode particles. Then, anode active material particles (Co.sub.3O.sub.4 particles) and 7% by weight of CNTs (based on the intended final composite particulate weight) were dispersed in the ETPTA monomer/solvent/initiator solution to form a slurry. A sufficient amount of the polymerizing mass (with respect to the anode active material and conductive additive) was prepared in this reactive mass to ensure that the anode particles are fully dispersed in the polymer matrix. The slurry was cast on a glass surface to form layers of composite droplets containing Co.sub.3O.sub.4 particles and CNTs dispersed in the ETPTA monomer/initiator-embraced. These micro-droplets were then thermally cured at 60° C. for 20 min and scratched from the glass surface to obtain composite particulates composed of Co.sub.3O.sub.4 particles and CNTs dispersed in a lightly-crosslinked high-elasticity polymer. Powder samples without CNTs included in the particulates were also prepared in a similar manner.

[0139] On a separate basis, some amount of the ETPTA monomer/solvent/initiator solution was cast onto a glass surface to form a wet film, which was thermally dried and then cured at 60° C. for 30 min to form a film of cross-linked polymer. In this experiment, the BPO/ETPTA weight ratio was varied from 0.1% to 4% to vary the degree of cross-linking in several different polymer films. Some of the cure polymer samples were subjected to dynamic mechanical testing to obtain the equilibrium dynamic modulus, Ge, for the determination of the number average molecular weight between two cross-link points (Mc) and the corresponding number of repeat units (Nc), as a means of characterizing the degree of cross-linking.

[0140] Several tensile testing specimens were cut from each cross-link film and tested with a universal testing machine. The representative tensile stress-strain curves of four BPO-initiated cross-linked ETPTA polymers are shown in FIG. 5(A), which indicate that this series of network polymers have an elastic deformation from approximately 230% to 700%. These above are for neat polymers without any additive. The addition of up to 30% by weight of a lithium salt typically reduces this elasticity down to a reversible tensile strain from 10% to 100%.

[0141] For electrochemical testing, the working electrodes were prepared by mixing 85 wt. % active material particles (polymer-protected and non-protected particulates of Co.sub.3O.sub.4, separately), 7 wt. % acetylene black (Super-P), and 8 wt. % polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) binder dissolved in N-methyl-2-pyrrolidinoe (NMP) to form a slurry of 5 wt. % total solid content. After coating the slurries on Cu foil, the electrodes were dried at 120° C. in vacuum for 2 h to remove the solvent before pressing. Then, the electrodes were cut into a disk (ϕ=12 mm) and dried at 100° C. for 24 h in vacuum. Electrochemical measurements were carried out using CR2032 (3V) coin-type cells with lithium metal as the counter/reference electrode, Celgard 2400 membrane as separator, and 1 M LiPF.sub.6 electrolyte solution dissolved in a mixture of ethylene carbonate (EC) and diethyl carbonate (DEC) (EC-DEC, 1:1 v/v). The cell assembly was performed in an argon-filled glove-box. The CV measurements were carried out using a CH-6 electrochemical workstation at a scanning rate of 1 mV/s.

[0142] The electrochemical performance of the particulates of high-elasticity polymer-encapsulated Co.sub.3O.sub.4 particles, elastomer-encapsulated Co.sub.3O.sub.4 particles and non-protected Co.sub.3O.sub.4 particles were evaluated by galvanostatic charge/discharge cycling at a current density of 50 mA/g, using an electrochemical workstation. The results indicate that the charge/discharge profiles for the high-elasticity polymer-protected Co.sub.3O.sub.4 particles and un-protected Co.sub.3O.sub.4 particle-based electrodes show a long voltage plateau at about 1.06 V and 1.10 V, respectively, followed by a slopping curve down to the cut-off voltage of 0.01 V, indicative of typical characteristics of voltage trends for the Co.sub.3O.sub.4 electrode.

[0143] As summarized in FIG. 5(B), the first-cycle lithium insertion capacity values are 752 mAh/g (non-protected) and 752 mAh/g (BPO-initiated ETPTA polymer-embedded), respectively, which are higher than the theoretical values of graphite (372 mAh/g). Both cells exhibit some first-cycle irreversibility. The initial capacity loss might have resulted from the incomplete conversion reaction and partially irreversible lithium loss due to the formation of solid electrolyte interface (SEI) layers.

[0144] As the number of cycles increases, the specific capacity of the bare Co.sub.3O.sub.4 electrode drops precipitously. The presently invented high-elasticity polymer-protected particulates provide the battery cell with the most stable and high specific capacity for a large number of cycles. Furthermore, the BPO-initiated ETPTA polymer exhibits a lithium ion conductivity that is 2 orders of magnitude higher than those of commonly used elastomers (e.g. urea-urethane elastomer), leading to a higher rate capability of the battery featuring the instant anode. These data have clearly demonstrated the surprising and superior performance of the presently invented composite particulate electrode materials compared with prior art un-encapsulated particulate-based electrode materials.

[0145] It may be noted that the number of charge-discharge cycles at which the specific capacity decays to 80% of its initial value is commonly defined as the useful cycle life of a lithium-ion battery. Thus, the cycle life of the lithium-ion cells containing non-protected anode active material is typically less than 200 cycles. In contrast, the cycle life of the presently invented cells (not just button cells, but large-scale full cells) is typically from 1,500 to 4,000.

Example 2: High-Elasticity Polymer Matrix-Protected Tin Oxide Particulates

[0146] Tin oxide (SnO.sub.2) nano particles were obtained by the controlled hydrolysis of SnCl.sub.4.5H.sub.2O with NaOH using the following procedure: SnCl.sub.4.5H.sub.2O (0.95 g, 2.7 m-mol) and NaOH (0.212 g, 5.3 m-mol) were dissolved in 50 mL of distilled water each. The NaOH solution was added drop-wise under vigorous stirring to the tin chloride solution at a rate of 1 mL/min. This solution was homogenized by sonication for 5 m in. Subsequently, the resulting hydrosol was reacted with H.sub.2SO.sub.4. To this mixed solution, few drops of 0.1 M of H.sub.2SO.sub.4 were added to flocculate the product. The precipitated solid was collected by centrifugation, washed with water and ethanol, and dried in vacuum. The dried product was heat-treated at 400° C. for 2 h under Ar atmosphere.

[0147] The high-elasticity polymer matrix for protecting SnO.sub.2 nano particles was based on cationic polymerization and cross-linking of the cyanoethyl polyvinyl alcohol (PVA-CN) in succinonitrile (SN). The procedure began with dissolving PVA-CN in succinonitrile to form a mixture solution. This step was followed by adding an initiator into the solution. For the purpose of incorporating some lithium species into the high elasticity polymer, we chose to use LiPF.sub.6 as an initiator. The ratio between LiPF.sub.6 and the PVA-CN/SN mixture solution was varied from 1/20 to ½ by weight to form a series of precursor solutions that would lead to various degrees of cross-linking. Subsequently, particles of a selected anode active material (SnO.sub.2 and graphene-embraced SnO.sub.2 particles) were introduced into these solutions to form a series of slurries. The slurries were then separately subjected to a micro-encapsulation procedure to produce composite micro-droplets comprising anode active material particles dispersed in the reacting mass, PVA-CN/LiPF.sub.6. These droplets were then heated at a temperature from 75 to 100° C. for 2 to 8 hours to obtain high-elasticity polymer matrix-protected anode active material particles.

[0148] Separately, the reacting mass, PVA-CN/LiPF.sub.6, was cast onto a glass surface to form several films which were polymerized and cured to obtain cross-linked polymers having different degrees of cross-linking. Tensile testing was also conducted on these films and some testing results are summarized in FIG. 6(A). This series of cross-linked polymers can be elastically stretched up to approximately 80% (higher degree of cross-linking) to 400% (lower degree of cross-linking).

[0149] The battery cells from the high-elasticity polymer matrix-protected particulates (nano-scaled SnO.sub.2 particles) and non-protected SnO.sub.2 particles were prepared using a procedure described in Example 1. FIG. 6(B) shows that the anode prepared according to the presently invented high-elasticity polymer matrix-protected particulate approach offers a significantly more stable and higher reversible capacity compared to both the un-coated SnO.sub.2 particle-based anode and the graphene-wrapped SnO.sub.2 particle-based anode. The approach of encapsulating the graphene-wrapped particles imparts a high level of cycle stability to the anode by preventing direct contact of liquid electrolyte with the anode active material and, thus, avoiding repeated SEI breakage and formation (the primary source of battery capacity decay). The presence of a high-elasticity polymer matrix provides another level of protection, helping to maintain the structural integrity of the particulates.

Example 3: Tin (Sn) Nano Particles Protected by a PETEA-Based High-Elasticity Polymer Matrix

[0150] For encapsulation of Sn nano particles, pentaerythritol tetraacrylate (PETEA), Formula 3, was used as a monomer:

##STR00003##

[0151] The precursor solution was composed of 1.5 wt. % PETEA (C.sub.17H.sub.20O.sub.8) monomer and 0.1 wt. % azodiisobutyronitrile (AIBN, C.sub.8H.sub.12N.sub.4) initiator dissolved in a solvent mixture of 1,2-dioxolane (DOL)/dimethoxymethane(DME)(1:1 by volume). Nano particles (76 nm in diameter) of Sn were added into the precursor solution and were encapsulated with a thin layer of PETEA/AIBN/solvent precursor solution via the spray-drying method (some solvent evaporated, but some remained). The precursor solution was polymerized and cured at 70° C. for half an hour to obtain particulates composed of high-elasticity polymer-encapsulated particles. The reacting mass, PETEA/AIBN (without Sn particles), was cast onto a glass surface to form several films which were polymerized and cured to obtain cross-linked polymers having different degrees of cross-linking. Tensile testing was also conducted on these films and some testing results are summarized in FIG. 7. This series of cross-linked polymers can be elastically stretched up to approximately 25% (higher degree of cross-linking) to 80% (lower degree of cross-linking)

Example 4: Si Nanowire-Based Particulates Dispersed in a High-Elasticity Polymer Matrix

[0152] Si nano particles and Si nanowires Si nano particles are available from Angstron Energy Co. (Dayton, Ohio). Si nanowires, mixtures of Si and carbon, and their graphene sheets-embraced versions were then further embraced with the semi-interpenetrating network polymer of ETPTA/EGMEA and the cross-linked BPO/ETPTA polymer (as in Example 1).

[0153] For the encapsulation of the various anode particles by the ETPTA semi-IPN polymer, the ETPTA (Mw=428 g/mol, trivalent acrylate monomer), EGMEA (Mw=482 g/mol, monovalent acrylate oligomer), and 2-hydroxy-2-methyl-1-phenyl-1-propanone (HMPP, a photoinitiator) were dissolved in a solvent (propylene carbonate, PC) to form a solution. The weight ratio between HMPP and the ETPTA/EGMEA mixture was varied from 0.2% to 2%. The ETPTA/EGMEA proportion in the solution was varied from 1% to 5% to generate matrices with different polymer contents. The ETPTA/EGMEA ratio in the acrylate mixture was varied from 10/0 to 1/9. Carbon nano-fibers (CNFs) were also incorporated into the systems as a conductive additive, helping to form a 3D network of electron-conducting pathways in the resulting composite particulates (6% by weight of CNFs).

[0154] The pan coating/embedding method was used to disperse anode active material particles into a polymer matrix. The droplets having a reacting mass of ETPTA/EGMEA/HMPP (along with the anode materials and CNFs) were then exposed to UV irradiation for 20 s. The UV polymerization/cross-linking was conducted using a Hg UV lamp (100 W), having a radiation peak intensity of approximately 2000 mW/cm.sup.2 on the surfaces of the powder samples.

[0155] The above procedure produced Si nanowire particulates composed of Si nanowires dispersed in a network of cross-linked ETPTA/EGMEA polymer chains. Some Si nanowires were coated with a layer of amorphous carbon and then dispersed in a cross-linked ETPTA/EGMEA polymer. For comparison purposes, Si nanowires unprotected and those protected by carbon coating (but no polymer protection), respectively, were also prepared and implemented in a separate lithium-ion cell. In all four cells, approximately 5% of graphite particles were mixed with the particulates, along with 5% binder resin, to make an anode electrode. The cycling behaviors of these 4 cells are shown in FIG. 8, which indicates that high-elasticity polymer matrix protection of Si nanowires, with or without carbon coating, provides the most stable cycling response. Carbon coating alone does not help to improve cycling stability by much.

Example 5: Effect of Lithium Ion-Conducting Additive in a High-Elasticity Polymer Matrix

[0156] A wide variety of lithium ion-conducting additives were added to several different polymer materials to prepare matrix materials for protecting dispersed particles of an anode active material. We have discovered that these polymer composite particulates are suitable matrix materials provided that their lithium ion conductivity at room temperature is no less than 10.sup.−8 S/cm (preferably no less than 10.sup.−6 S/cm). With these materials, lithium ions appear to be capable of readily diffusing in and out of the polymer matrix.

TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 Lithium ion conductivity of various high-elasticity polymer composite compositions as a matrix material for protecting anode active material particles. Sample Lithium-conducting No. additive Elastomer (1-2 μm thick) Li-ion conductivity (S/cm) E-1p Li.sub.2CO.sub.3 + (CH.sub.2OCO.sub.2Li).sub.2 70-99% PVA-CN 2.9 × 10.sup.−4 to 3.6 × 10.sup.−3 S/cm E-2p Li.sub.2CO.sub.3 + (CH.sub.2OCO.sub.2Li).sub.2 65-99% ETPTA 6.4 × 10.sup.−4 to 2.3 × 10.sup.−3 S/cm E-3p Li.sub.2CO.sub.3 + (CH.sub.2OCO.sub.2Li).sub.2 65-99% ETPTA/EGMEA 8.4 × 10.sup.−4 to 1.8 × 10.sup.−3 S/cm D-4p Li.sub.2CO.sub.3 + (CH.sub.2OCO.sub.2Li).sub.2 70-99% PETEA 7.8 × 10.sup.−3 to 2.3 × 10.sup.−2 S/cm D-5p Li.sub.2CO.sub.3 + (CH.sub.2OCO.sub.2Li).sub.2 75-99% PVA-CN 8.9 × 10.sup.−4 to 5.5 × 10.sup.−3 S/cm B1p LiF + LiOH + Li.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4 60-90% PVA-CN 8.7 × 10.sup.−5 to 2.3 × 10.sup.−3 S/cm B2p LiF + HCOLi 80-99% PVA-CN 2.8 × 10.sup.−4 to 1.6 × 10.sup.−3 S/cm B3p LiOH 70-99% PETEA 4.8 × 10.sup.−3 to 1.2 × 10.sup.−2 S/cm B4p Li.sub.2CO.sub.3 70-99% PETEA 4.4 × 10.sup.−3 to 9.9 × 10.sup.−3 S/cm B5p Li.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4 70-99% PETEA 1.3 × 10.sup.−3 to 1.2 × 10.sup.−2 S/cm B6p Li.sub.2CO.sub.3 + LiOH 70-99% PETEA 1.4 × 10.sup.−3 to 1.6 × 10.sup.−2 S/cm C1p LiClO.sub.4 70-99% PVA-CN 4.5 × 10.sup.−4 to 2.4 × 10.sup.−3 S/cm C2p LiPF.sub.6 70-99% PVA-CN 3.4 × 10.sup.−4 to 7.2 × 10.sup.−3 S/cm C3p LiBF.sub.4 70-99% PVA-CN 1.1 × 10.sup.−4 to 1.8 × 10.sup.−3 S/cm C4p LiBOB + LiNO.sub.3 70-99% PVA-CN 2.2 × 10.sup.−4 to 4.3 × 10.sup.−3 S/cm S1p Sulfonated polyaniline 85-99% ETPTA 9.8 × 10.sup.−5 to 9.2 × 10.sup.−4 S/cm S2p Sulfonated SBR 85-99% ETPTA 1.2 × 10.sup.−4 to 1.0 × 10.sup.−3S/cm S3p Sulfonated PVDF 80-99% ETPTA/EGMEA 3.5 × 10.sup.−4 to 2.1 × 10.sup.−4 S/cm S4p Polyethylene oxide 80-99% ETPTA/EGMEA 4.9 × 10.sup.−4 to 3.7 × 103.sup.−4 S/cm

Example 6: Cycle Stability of Various Rechargeable Lithium Battery Cells

[0157] In lithium-ion battery industry, it is a common practice to define the cycle life of a battery as the number of charge-discharge cycles that the battery suffers 20% decay in capacity based on the initial capacity measured after the required electrochemical formation. Summarized in Table 3 below are the cycle life data of a broad array of batteries featuring presently invented elastomer-encapsulated anode active material particles vs. other types of anode active materials.

TABLE-US-00003 Initial Sample Type & % of anode active capacity Cycle life (No. ID Protective means material (mAh/g) of cycles) Si-1p PVA-CN matrix 25% by wt. Si nano 1,120 1,600-2,100 particles (80 nm) + 67% graphite + 8% binder Si-2p Carbon encapsulation 25% by wt. Si nano 1,242 251 particles (80 nm) SiNW-1p PVA-CN matrix 35% Si nanowires 1,258 2,620 (diameter = 90 nm) SiNW-2p PVA-CN + ethylene 45% Si nano particles, 1,760 2,310 (pre- oxide (50%) pre-lithiated or non- lithiated); 1,911 prelithiated (no pre-Li) no prelithiation) V.sub.2O.sub.5-1p ETPTA matrix 90%-95%, V.sub.2O.sub.5 236 3,330 Co.sub.3O.sub.4-2P ETPTA matrix 85% Co.sub.3O.sub.4 + 8% graphite 720 3,360 (Pre- platelets + binder lithiated); 2,533 (no pre-Li) Co.sub.3O.sub.4-2p No protection 85% Co.sub.3O.sub.4 + 8% graphite 725 266 platelets + binder SnO.sub.2-2p ETPTA/EGMEA 75% SnO.sub.2 particles (3 μm 740 1,920 matrix initial size) SnO.sub.2-2p ETPTA/EGMEA 75% SnO.sub.2 particles (87 738 4,515 (Pre-Li); matrix nm in diameter) 2,788 (non pre-Li) Ge-1p PETEA matrix, 85% Ge + 8% graphite 850 2,112 C-coated Ge platelets + binder Ge-2p Carbon-coated 85% Ge + 8% graphite 856 120 platelets + binder Al-Li-1p PETEA matrix Al/Li alloy (3/97) 2,850 2,760 particles Al-Li-2p None Al/Li alloy particles 2,856 155 Zn-Li-1p PETEA matrix C-coated Zn/Li alloy 2,626 2,335 (5/95) particles Zn-Li-2p None C-coated Zn/Li alloy 2,631 146 (5/95) particles

[0158] These data further confirm the following features: [0159] (1) The high-elasticity polymer matrix embedding strategy is surprisingly effective in alleviating the anode expansion/shrinkage-induced capacity decay problems. Such a strategy appears to have significantly reduced or eliminated the possibility of repeated SEI formation that would otherwise continue to consume electrolyte and active lithium ions. [0160] (2) The encapsulation of high-capacity anode active material particles by carbon or other protective materials without high elasticity polymer protection does not provide much benefit in terms of improving cycling stability of a lithium-ion battery. [0161] (3) Pre-lithiation of the anode active material particles prior to high-elasticity polymer matrix embedding is beneficial to retaining capacity.