Calibrating passive LC sensor

Abstract

A flexible, passive pressure sensor includes three LC tank circuits. The first LC tank circuit is a pressure sensing LC tank circuit, having a capacitance that varies in response to changes in environmental pressure. The second and third LC tank circuits are reference LC tank circuits, having capacitances that are relatively constant over changes in environmental pressure. A measurement tool measures the resonant frequencies of the three LC tank circuits and then computes a pressure measurement that accounts for changes in resonant frequencies in the LC tank circuits due to environmental effects and deforming.

Claims

1. A medical device for compensating for dielectric properties of a surrounding medium and non-pressure related mechanical deformations in an inductor-capacitor pressure sensor, the medical device comprising: a stent-graft; a pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit arranged on an outer surface of the stent-graft, an inner surface of the stent-graft, or integrated within the stent-graft, the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit including a first inductor and a first capacitor, the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit having a capacitance that varies in response to changes in environmental pressure; a first reference inductor-capacitor tank circuit including a second inductor and a second capacitor, the first reference inductor-capacitor tank circuit having a capacitance that is relatively constant over changes in environmental pressure; and a second reference inductor-capacitor tank circuit including a third inductor and a third capacitor, the second reference inductor-capacitor tank circuit having a capacitance that is relatively constant over changes in environmental pressure, wherein the capacitance of the second reference inductor-capacitor tank is different than the capacitance of the first reference inductor-capacitor tank.

2. The medical device of claim 1, wherein the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit is positioned between the first and second reference inductor-capacitor tank circuits.

3. The medical device of claim 1, wherein the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit, the first reference inductor-capacitor tank circuit, and the second reference inductor-capacitor tank circuit are part of a passive inductor-capacitor pressure sensor, and wherein the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit is located at one end of the passive inductor-capacitor pressure sensor.

4. The medical device of claim 1, wherein the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit, the first and second reference inductor-capacitor tank circuits and the stent-graft are compressible for insertion into a circulatory vessel.

5. The medical device of claim 1, wherein the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit, the first and second reference inductor-capacitor tank circuits and the stent-graft are expandable to an expanded state within a circulatory vessel.

6. The medical device of claim 1, wherein the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit is located within 2-5 millimeters of the first reference inductor-capacitor tank circuit.

7. The medical device of claim 6, wherein the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit is located within 2-5 millimeters of the second reference inductor-capacitor tank circuit.

8. The medical device of claim 1, wherein the first reference inductor-capacitor tank circuit and the second reference inductor-capacitor tank circuit are configured to have inductive coils substantially identical to that of the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit, such that dielectric properties of a surrounding media induce an equivalent parasitic capacitance to the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit, the first reference inductor-capacitor tank circuit, and the second reference inductor-capacitor tank circuit, and mechanical deformation of the inductive coils induces an equivalent inductance change to the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit, the first reference inductor-capacitor tank circuit, and the second reference inductor-capacitor tank circuit.

9. The medical device of claim 1, wherein the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit includes an elastic dielectric material within the first capacitor.

10. The medical device of claim 1, wherein the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit is foldable.

11. The medical device of claim 10, wherein the first capacitor of the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit comprises a vacuum cavity within the first capacitor.

12. The medical device of claim 1, wherein the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit is formed from a thin flexible structure and integrated within the stent-graft to measure pressure without blocking blood flow through a circulatory vessel.

13. An implantable device, comprising: a pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit including a first inductor and a first capacitor, the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit having a capacitance that varies in response to changes in environmental pressure; a first reference inductor-capacitor tank circuit including a second inductor and a second capacitor, the first reference inductor-capacitor tank circuit having a capacitance that is relatively constant over changes in environmental pressure; and a second reference inductor-capacitor tank circuit including a third inductor and a third capacitor, the second reference inductor-capacitor tank circuit having a capacitance that is relatively constant over changes in environmental pressure, wherein the capacitance of the second reference inductor-capacitor tank is different than the capacitance of the first reference inductor-capacitor tank.

14. The implantable device of claim 13, wherein the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit is positioned between the first and second reference inductor-capacitor tank circuits.

15. The implantable device of claim 13, wherein the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit, the first reference inductor-capacitor tank circuit, and the second reference inductor-capacitor tank circuit are part of a passive inductor-capacitor pressure sensor, and wherein the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit is located at one end of the passive inductor-capacitor pressure sensor.

16. The implantable device of claim 13, wherein the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit, and the first and second reference inductor-capacitor tank circuits are compressible for insertion into a circulatory vessel.

17. The implantable device of claim 13, wherein the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit, and the first and second reference inductor-capacitor tank circuits are expandable to an expanded state within a circulatory vessel.

18. The implantable device of claim 13, wherein the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit is located within 2-5 millimeters of the first reference inductor-capacitor tank circuit.

19. The implantable device of claim 18, wherein the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit is located within 2-5 millimeters of the second reference inductor-capacitor tank circuit.

20. The implantable device of claim 13, wherein the first reference inductor-capacitor tank circuit and the second reference inductor-capacitor tank circuit are configured to have inductive coils substantially identical to that of the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit, such that dielectric properties of a surrounding media induce an equivalent parasitic capacitance to the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit, the first reference inductor-capacitor tank circuit, and the second reference inductor-capacitor tank circuit, and mechanical deformation of the inductive coils induces an equivalent inductance change to the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit, the first reference inductor-capacitor tank circuit, and the second reference inductor-capacitor tank circuit.

21. The implantable device of claim 13, wherein the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit includes an elastic dielectric material within the first capacitor.

22. The implantable device of claim 13, wherein the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit is foldable.

23. The implantable device of claim 13, wherein the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit is formed from a thin flexible structure and integrated within a stent-graft to measure pressure without blocking blood flow through a circulatory vessel.

24. The implantable device of claim 23, wherein the first capacitor of the pressure-sensing inductor-capacitor tank circuit comprises a vacuum cavity within the first capacitor.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) FIG. 1 illustrates a diagram of an exemplary LC tank circuit and a portion of an exemplary circuit for a sensor reader, according to embodiments of the present disclosure.

(2) FIG. 2 illustrates an exemplary pressure sensor coupled to a stent-graft as well as an exemplary measuring tool, according to embodiments of the present disclosure.

(3) FIG. 3 illustrates an exemplary pressure sensor having an LC tank circuit with a planar antenna and said pressure sensor coupled to a stent-graft, according to embodiments of the present disclosure.

(4) FIG. 4 illustrates an exemplary pressure sensor having an LC tank circuit with a cylindrical antenna and that pressure sensor coupled to a stent-graft, according to embodiments of the present disclosure.

(5) FIG. 5 illustrates a pressure sensor having three exemplary LC tank circuits with planar antennas and said pressure sensor coupled to a stent-graft, according to embodiments of the present disclosure.

(6) FIG. 6 illustrates a pressure sensor having three exemplary LC tank circuits with cylindrical antennas, according to embodiments of the present disclosure.

(7) FIG. 7 illustrates steps for measuring blood pressure within a vessel using a pressure sensor with three LC tank circuits, according to embodiments of the present disclosure.

(8) FIG. 8 illustrates a portion of a stent graft to which a pressure sensor is coupled and depicts components of three LC tank circuits that form the pressure sensor, according to embodiments of the present disclosure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

(9) According to some embodiments, FIG. 1 shows an electrical equivalent resonant circuit 1 of a passive LC sensor with an equivalent capacitor C (reference number 7) and inductor L (reference number 5), and an equivalent electrical circuit 3 of a sensor reader, where the reader antenna 13 wirelessly measures the resonant frequency of circuit 1 by magnetic induction between the sensor antenna (e.g., the inductor 5) and reader antenna 13. The electrical equivalent resonant circuit 1 can also be referred to as an LC circuit, LC tank, or LC tank circuit, because of the voltage 11 that it can hold. The LC tank 1 has a resonant frequency that depends on the inductance and capacitance provided by the inductor 5 and capacitor 7, respectively. If the capacitor 7 is configured to vary its capacitance in response to a change in external pressure, the LC tank circuit can serve as a pressure sensor. As one of skill in the art will readily appreciate, there are a wide variety of electrical components that exhibit capacitive and inductive characteristics and that can be used in various embodiments discussed herein. As also shown in FIG. 1, the LC tank circuit 1 also includes an equivalent resistor 9 that represents energy loss due to RF absorption. In general, a smaller resistance is required to provide a higher quality factor (Q, e.g., greater than 35) so that the ring-down signal 15 from the sensor can last long enough for the reader to pick up the resonance signal.

(10) One of the benefits of an LC tank (e.g., LC tank 1 in FIG. 1) is that characteristics of that circuit (e.g., resonant frequency) can be determined without needing to include a power source, such as a battery, as part of the circuit. Instead, a reader or monitoring tool (e.g., equivalent electrical circuit 3 in FIG. 1) can interact wirelessly with that circuit to detect those characteristics of the LC tank 1. Another benefit of an LC tank (e.g., LC tank 50 or 60 in FIGS. 3-4) is that the LC circuit can be formed from a thin-flexible structure, such that the LC sensor can be integrated within a stent-graft to measure pressure at a site without blocking blood flow through the vessel. These advantages render the LC tank as a suitable candidate for a pressure sensor for monitoring blood pressure within a vessel.

(11) For example, if a dielectric material that reacts to external pressure is placed within the capacitor (e.g., capacitor 7 in FIG. 1), a change in blood pressure will cause a change in capacitance in the LC tank, which results in a change in its resonant frequency. For another example, the LC tank may be set up so that the plates of the capacitor 7 move in response to external pressures, which will affect the capacitance and the resonant frequency of the LC tank. Under either approach, if the other characteristics of the LC tank (e.g., inductance) remain relatively constant, the change in the resonant frequency can be used to determine the change in capacitance, which can then be used to determine a measurement of the blood pressure within the vessel.

(12) These approaches can be seen in FIG. 2, in which a pressure sensor 20 uses an LC circuit to monitor blood pressure at a stent-graft 22 placed to treat an aneurism in the body 24. In various embodiments, the pressure sensor may be placed on an outer surface of the stent-graft, an inner surface of the stent-graft, or may be integrated within the stent-graft. Thus, measuring blood pressure at the stent-graft includes measuring blood pressure outside of the stent-graft and/or within the stent-graft. The measurement device 28 includes an antenna 30 and a reader/display 32. The reader/display 32 can include a processor, memory, and other hardware and/or software needed to measure signals from the antenna 30 and process those signals to determine (and perhaps display) the blood pressure measurements. The measuring device 28 emits a pulse 34, which causes the pressure sensor to emit a ring-down signal 36. The measuring device 28 analyzes the ring-down signal 36 to identify pressure within the stent-graft 22. Additional details regarding these processing steps are provided below.

(13) In some embodiments, the antenna 30 emits RF signals 34 at a variety of frequencies at different times and measures when the pressure sensor 20 absorbs those frequencies. In other embodiments, the antenna 30 emits energy at a variety of frequencies simultaneously and then detects energy 36 emitted from the LC circuit within the pressure sensor 20, which will indicate the resonant frequency of the LC circuit. As discussed above, measurements of the resonant frequency can be used to determine blood pressure at the pressure sensor.

(14) At the same time, the accuracy of blood pressure measurements with thin flexible LC sensors is limited by several factors that can also affect the resonant frequency. For example, tissues surrounding the pressure sensor can have a dielectric effect on the LC circuit's antenna coil, which adds a parasitic capacitance into the LC circuit. Because of the tight restrictions on size for these pressure sensors, any protective layers added to the LC circuit may often be thin, such that the ability to shield the LC circuit from the surrounding media may be limited. Thus, accounting for the effect of the surrounding tissue on the capacitance of the LC circuit can improve the accuracy of the blood pressure measurement.

(15) The accuracy of the blood pressure measurement may also be affected by changes to the inductance of the LC circuit's antenna coil (e.g., inductor 5 in FIG. 1). Referring now to FIG. 3, an LC tank 50 can be built with a planar antenna. However, to conform to the non-planar shape of a stent-graft 52, LC tank 50 is bent into a corresponding profile. This can change the shape and inductance of the inductor 5. This effect can be somewhat mitigated by using a cylindrical antenna, as shown with the LC tank 60 and the stent-graft 62 in FIG. 6. However, there will typically be additional changes in inductance as the LC tank 60 is secured to the stent-graft 62. Furthermore, after insertion the LC tank 50, 60 will frequently and repeatedly bend and change shape in response to the pulsating blood flow in the vessel caused by heartbeats. Thus, these factors cause blood pressure measurements taken using a single flexible LC tank to be less accurate.

(16) In some embodiments, a pressure sensor is formed using multiple LC tanks to improve the accuracy of the blood pressure measurements. This pressure sensor provides many of the characteristics important for implantation within a blood vessel, since it is foldable, transmits wirelessly, and does not require internal power (e.g., a battery). In addition, as discussed below, this sensor enables more precise blood pressure measurements within the vessel.

(17) Referring to FIG. 5, a pressure sensor 100 includes three LC tanks 102-106, formed with planar antennas, coupled to a stent-graft 110. The first LC tank 102 is pressure sensitive, meaning that its resonant frequency changes in response to changes in pressure. This can be accomplished, for example, by including an elastic dielectric material within the capacitor 7. The other two LC tanks 104, 106 are not pressure sensitive, meaning that their resonant frequencies are relatively unaffected by changes in pressure. However, all three LC tanks are responsive to physical bending as well as environmental tissue dielectric effect (and other non-pressure factors affecting the resonant frequency). Thus, the other two LC tanks 104, 106 serve as reference LC tanks that sense tissue dielectric effects and bending and deforming effects that also occur on the first LC tank 102.

(18) As also shown in FIG. 5, these three LC tanks 102-106 are secured to the stent-graft 110 in close proximity to each other, for example, separated by a gap of approximately 2-5 millimeters. As a result, factors affecting inductance and factors affecting capacitance (other than pressure) will be the same or substantially similar across the three LC tanks (102-106).

(19) FIG. 6 illustrates a pressure sensor 200 with three LC tanks 202-206 formed with cylindrical antennas. FIG. 6 further shows their relative positioning as if they were coupled to a stent-graft. The first LC tank 202 is pressure sensitive, meaning that its resonant frequency changes in response to changes in pressure. This can be accomplished, for example, by including an elastic dielectric material or vacuum cavity within the capacitor 7. The other two LC tanks 204, 206 are not pressure sensitive, meaning that their resonant frequencies are unaffected by changes in pressure. However, all three LC tanks will be responsive to physical changes as well as environmental tissue dielectric effect (and other non-pressure factors affecting the resonant frequency). Thus, the other two LC tanks 204, 206 serve as reference LC tanks that sense tissue dielectric effects and bending and deforming effects that also occur on the first LC tank 202.

(20) In other words, in both FIGS. 5 and 6, the first LC tank (102, 202) uses a variable or pressure-sensitive capacitor whose capacitance (C.sub.1V) changes in response to changes in environmental pressures (e.g., changes in blood pressure). The other two LC tanks (104, 106, 204, 206) have capacitors whose capacitance (C.sub.2, C.sub.3, respectively) do not change in response to changes in environmental pressures. These three capacitors may be configured with different dielectric media to have three different capacitance values such that the three LC tanks have different resonant frequencies that can be readily distinguished by an external reader. With these additional reference measurements, the measurements of the first LC tank (102, 202) can be corrected to account for tissue dielectric effects as well as bending and deforming effects using the measurements of the other two LC tanks (104, 106, 204, 206).

(21) In addition, these three LC tanks are constructed to have equivalent or substantially equivalent inductance (L), and experience equivalent or substantially equivalent parasite capacitance (C.sub.par) and equivalent or substantially equivalent substrate and environmental capacitance and loss (C.sub.sub). For example, in some embodiments all three LC tanks have similar inductive coils or even substantially identical inductive coils. As a result, any bending of the pressure sensor causes equivalent or substantially equivalent inductance change (ΔL) in all three LC tanks.

(22) A measurement device (e.g., measurement device 28 in FIG. 2) can measure the resonant frequencies of the three LC tanks (102-106 or 202-206), and can process those measured frequencies in a manner that accounts for changes in inductance and changes in capacitance due to factors other than pressure. The three capacitors C1, C2, and C3 have different capacitance values, so that the corresponding resonant frequencies of three LC tanks are different enough to be distinguished. Additional details regarding these processing steps are provided below. Thus, using a pressure sensor with these three LC tank circuits and using these processing steps improves the precision of blood pressure measurements.

(23) In an LC circuit, the resonant frequency (f) is:
f=1/(2π√{square root over (LC)})  (Eq. 1)
where L is the inductance of the LC circuit and C is the capacitance of the LC circuit. For simplicity, Equation 1 may be rewritten in terms of a measurement “m”:

(24) $\begin{array}{cc}m={\left(\frac{1}{2\pi f}\right)}^2=LC& \left(\mathrm{Eq}.2\right)\end{array}$

(25) The resonant frequencies of the three LC tanks are measured, resulting in measurements m.sub.1, m.sub.2, and m.sub.3, which relate as follows:

(26) $\begin{array}{cc}{m}_1={\left(\frac{1}{2\pi f_1}\right)}^2=\left(L+\Delta L\right)\left(C_{1V}+C_{\mathrm{par}}+C_{\mathrm{sub}}\right)& \left(\mathrm{Eq}.3\right)\\ m_2={\left(\frac{1}{2\pi f_2}\right)}^2=\left(L+\Delta L\right)\left(C_2+C_{\mathrm{par}}+C_{\mathrm{sub}}\right)& \left(\mathrm{Eq}.4\right)\\ m_3={\left(\frac{1}{2\pi f_3}\right)}^2=\left(L+\Delta L\right)\left(C_3+C_{\mathrm{par}}+C_{\mathrm{sub}}\right)& \left(\mathrm{Eq}.5\right)\end{array}$

(27) In other words, using the three LC tanks in this manner provides three measurement (m.sub.1, m.sub.2 and m.sub.3) and equations with three unknowns (C.sub.1V, C.sub.par+C.sub.sub and ΔL).

(28) These equations can be manipulated so that two of the three unknown factors (C.sub.par+C.sub.sub and ΔL) cancel out. First, two of the equations are subtracted as shown below:
m.sub.3−m.sub.2=(L+ΔL)(C.sub.3−C.sub.2)  (Eq. 6)
m.sub.1−m.sub.2=(L+ΔL)(C.sub.1V−C.sub.2)  (Eq. 7)

(29) Then a ratio of these equations are taken:

(30) $\begin{array}{cc}\frac{m_1-m_2}{m_3-m_2}=\frac{C_{1V}-C_2}{C_3-C_2}& \left(\mathrm{Eq}.8\right)\end{array}$

(31) Solving this equation for C.sub.1V results in the following equation:

(32) $\begin{array}{cc}{C}_{1V}=\frac{m_1-m_2}{m_3-m_2}\left(C_3-C_2\right)+C_2& \left(\mathrm{Eq}.9\right)\end{array}$

(33) In this equation, C.sub.1V and m.sub.1 are functions of environmental pressure (P), while m.sub.2, m.sub.3, C.sub.2 and C.sub.3 are independent and will not change with pressure P.

(34) Using the term P.sub.0 to refer to an initial environmental pressure, a change in capacitance (ΔC.sub.V) can then be used to determine a change in the environmental pressure (ΔP). First, we can break up C.sub.1V into two parts:
C.sub.1V=C.sub.1V{P}=C.sub.1V{P.sub.0+ΔP}=C.sub.10{P.sub.0}+ΔC.sub.V{ΔP}  (Eq. 10)
where brackets are used to indicate that capacitance (e.g., C.sub.1V) is a function of pressure (e.g., P).

(35) Combining Equation 9 and Equation 10 results in the following equation:

(36) $\begin{array}{cc}\frac{m_1\left\{P_0+\Delta P\right\}-m_2}{m_3-m_2}\left(C_3-C_2\right)=C_{10}\left\{P_0\right\}+\Delta C_V\left\{\Delta P\right\}-C_2& \left(\mathrm{Eq}.11\right)\end{array}$

(37) If measurements are taken of the three LC tanks at the initial pressure P.sub.0 (i.e., with ΔP=0, ΔC.sub.V{0}=0) those measurement can be referred to as m.sub.2*, m.sub.1*(P.sub.0), and m.sub.3*, and Equation 11 reduces to:

(38) 0$\begin{array}{cc}{C}_{10}\left\{P_0\right\}-C_2=\frac{m_1^{*}\left(P_0\right)-m_2^{*}}{m_3^{*}-m_2^{*}}\left(C_3-C_2\right)& \left(\mathrm{Eq}.12\right)\end{array}$

(39) Using Equation 11, Equation 12 can be rewritten as:

(40) $\begin{array}{cc}\Delta C_V\left\{\Delta P\right\}=\left(\frac{m_1\left\{P_0+\Delta P\right\}-m_2}{m_3-m_2}-\frac{m_1^{*}\left(P_0\right)-m_2^{*}}{m_3^{*}-m_2^{*}}\right)\left(C_3-C_2\right)& \left(\mathrm{Eq}.13\right)\end{array}$

(41) These equations can be further simplified by combining some of the terms into new variables, as follows:

(42) $\begin{array}{cc}{R}_m^{*}\left(P_0\right)=\frac{m_1^{*}\left\{P_0\right\}-m_2^{*}}{m_3^{*}-m_2^{*}}& \left(\mathrm{Eq}.14\right)\\ R_m\left(P_0+\Delta P\right)=\frac{m_1\left\{P_0+\Delta P\right\}-m_2}{m_3-m_2}& \left(\mathrm{Eq}.15\right)\end{array}$
C.sub.ref=C.sub.3−C.sub.2  (Eq. 16)

(43) Using these variables, the earlier equations simplify to:
ΔC.sub.V{ΔP}=C.sub.ref(R.sub.m{P.sub.0+ΔP}−R.sub.m*{P.sub.0})  (Eq. 17)

(44) In sum, by using this approach, the relationship between ΔC.sub.V and ΔP is independent from C.sub.par+C.sub.sub as well as ΔL. Consequently, a controlled calibration measurement can be used to derive a curve of ΔP (relative to P.sub.0) vs. ΔC.sub.V. For example, during one exemplary calibration technique, a sensor with three LC tanks, which may be built into a graft, is placed into an air chamber in which the air pressure is measured by a calibrated standard pressure sensor. A set of pressures, including the initial pressure P.sub.0, is set in the air chamber. At each pressure setting, the resonant frequencies of the three LC tanks are wirelessly detected. Then, using Eq. 17, a calibration curve of ΔP (relative to P.sub.0) vs. ΔC.sub.V is computed from the above measurements. As discussed above, this calibration curve is independent from both the surrounding tissue dielectric effect and the deforming/bending effect. Therefore, only a single calibration for multiple LC tanks as described above is needed. This calibration curve of ΔP (relative to P.sub.0) vs. ΔC.sub.V is used to identify changes in blood pressure when the device is implanted.

(45) In addition, the pressure sensor might not be around P.sub.0 when the device is implanted. To get to the base point R.sub.m*{P.sub.0}, an on-site calibration measurement with other means is performed, for example, using a pressure catheter to measure the blood pressure at the site. The previously-derived calibration curve for this sensor will then indicate any pressure change ΔP from the capacitance change ΔC.sub.V, calculated from the measured resonant frequencies.

(46) An exemplary method 300 for determining blood pressure using a pressure sensor is shown in FIG. 7. As shown in block 302, the method begins with calibrating the pressure sensor. This includes creating a calibration curve for the pressure sensor (e.g., ΔP (relative to P.sub.0) vs. ΔC.sub.V) by measuring the resonant frequencies of the three LC tanks at a set of known pressures. As shown in block 304, the pressure sensor is implanted in the patient. In this step, the flexibility of the LC pressure sensor may facilitate easy implantation. For example, the pressure sensor may be coupled to a stent-graft in its expanded state. The stent-graft and pressure sensor may be then crushed and/or folded for insertion and subsequent expansion at the tissue site. In other cases, the LC pressure sensor may be built into an arteriovenous (AV) graft which may be surgically implanted into human body. As shown in block 306, the resonant frequencies of the three LC tank circuits are measured wirelessly by an external reader. Using those measurements, the change in capacitance for the pressure-sensitive LC tank circuit is determined, using the equations and techniques discussed above, as shown in block 308. Finally, as shown in block 310, the change in blood pressure is determined using the change in capacitance for the pressure-sensitive LC tank circuit.

(47) In some embodiments, blocks 306, 308, and 310 are performed by a measurement device (e.g., 28 in FIG. 2). For example, these steps could be automatically performed, in whole or in part, by a processor executing instructions stored in a tangible, non-transitory storage medium, without user interaction. These instructions cause the processor to implement the equations and techniques discussed above.

(48) In some embodiments, methods for using a pressure sensor (e.g., a pressure sensor with three LC tanks) includes crushing and/or folding the pressure sensor for insertion into a patient's body. The flexible nature of the LC tank circuits enable the pressure sensor to expand with the graft stent without degrading.

(49) Referring now to FIG. 8, a stent-graft 500 includes a stent 502 and a graft 504. Coupled to the graft 504 are three LC circuits 506, 508, 510. In other embodiments, those circuits are coupled to the stent 502. LC circuit 506 includes an inductor 512 and a variable, pressure sensitive capacitor 514 whose capacitance (C.sub.1v) changes in response to external pressures. LC circuits 508, 510 include inductors 516, 518 and capacitors 520, 522 whose capacitances do not change in response to external pressures.

(50) Various modifications and additions can be made to the exemplary embodiments discussed without departing from the scope of the present invention. For example, while the embodiments described above refer to particular features, the scope of this invention also includes embodiments having different combinations of features and embodiments that do not include all of the above described features.