Method of protecting sulfur cathode materials for alkali metal-sulfur secondary battery

Abstract

Provided is a method of producing a rechargeable alkali metal-sulfur cell, comprising: (a) providing an anode layer; (b) providing particulates comprising primary particles of a sulfur-containing material encapsulated or embraced by a thin layer of a conductive sulfonated elastomer composite, wherein the conductive sulfonated elastomer composite comprises from 0% to 50% by weight of a conductive reinforcement material dispersed in a sulfonated elastomeric matrix material, and the conductive sulfonated elastomer composite has a thickness from 1 nm to 10 μm, a fully recoverable tensile strain from 2% to 500%, a lithium ion conductivity from 10.sup.−7 S/cm to 5×10.sup.−2 S/cm, and an electrical conductivity from 10.sup.−7 S/cm to 100 S/cm; (c) forming the particulates, a resin binder, and an optional conductive additive into a cathode layer; and (d) combining the anode layer, the cathode layer, an optional porous separator, and an electrolyte to form the alkali metal-sulfur cell.

Claims

1. A method of producing a rechargeable alkali metal-sulfur cell, said method comprising: (a) providing an anode active material layer; (b) providing particulates comprising primary particles of a sulfur-containing material encapsulated or embraced by a thin layer of a conductive sulfonated elastomer composite, wherein said conductive sulfonated elastomer composite comprises from 0% to 50% by weight of a conductive reinforcement material dispersed in a sulfonated elastomeric matrix material, wherein said conductive reinforcement material is selected from graphene sheets, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, metal nanowires, conductive polymer fibers, or a combination thereof and said thin layer of conductive sulfonated elastomer composite has a thickness from 1 nm to 10 μm, a fully recoverable tensile strain greater than 5%, a lithium ion conductivity from 10.sup.−7 S/cm to 5×10.sup.−2 S/cm, and an electrical conductivity from 10.sup.−7 S/cm to 100 S/cm when measured at room temperature; (c) forming said particulates, a resin binder, and an optional conductive additive into a cathode active material layer; and (d) combining said anode active material layer, an optional anode current collector, said cathode active material layer, an optional cathode current collector, an optional porous separator disposed between said anode active material layer and said cathode active material layer, and an electrolyte to form said alkali metal-sulfur cell.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein said sulfur-containing material is selected from a sulfur-carbon hybrid, sulfur-graphite hybrid, sulfur-graphene hybrid, conducting polymer-sulfur hybrid, metal sulfide, sulfur compound, or a combination thereof.

3. The method of claim 2, wherein said sulfur-carbon hybrid, sulfur-graphite hybrid, sulfur-graphene hybrid, or conducting polymer-sulfur hybrid is a mixture, blend, composite, chemically or physically bonded entity of sulfur or sulfide with a carbon, graphite, graphene, or conducting polymer material.

4. The method of claim 3, wherein said carbon or graphite material in said cathode active material layer is selected from mesophase pitch, mesophase carbon, mesocarbon microbead (MCMB), coke particle, expanded graphite flake, artificial graphite particle, natural graphite particle, highly oriented pyrolytic graphite, soft carbon particle, hard carbon particle, carbon nanotube, carbon nanofiber, carbon fiber, graphite nanofiber, graphite fiber, carbonized polymer fiber, activated carbon, carbon black, or a combination thereof.

5. The method of claim 2, wherein said metal sulfide contains M.sub.xS.sub.y, wherein x is an integer from 1 to 3 and y is an integer from 1 to 10, and M is a metal element selected from an alkali metal, an alkaline metal selected from Mg or Ca, a transition metal, a metal from groups 13 to 17 of the periodic table, or a combination thereof.

6. The method of claim 5, wherein said metal element M is selected from Li, Na, K, Mg, Zn, Cu, Ti, Ni, Co, Fe, or Al.

7. The method of claim 2, wherein said metal sulfide contains Li.sub.2S, Li.sub.2S.sub.2, Li.sub.2S.sub.3, Li.sub.2S.sub.4, Li.sub.2S.sub.5, Li.sub.2S.sub.6, Li.sub.2S.sub.7, Li.sub.2S.sub.8, Li.sub.2S.sub.9, Li.sub.2S.sub.10, Na.sub.2S, Na.sub.2S.sub.2, Na.sub.2S.sub.3, Na.sub.2S.sub.4, Na.sub.2S.sub.5, Na.sub.2S.sub.6, Na.sub.2S.sub.7, Na.sub.2S.sub.8, Na.sub.2S.sub.9, Na.sub.2S.sub.10, K.sub.2S, K.sub.2S.sub.2, K.sub.2S.sub.3, K.sub.2S.sub.4, K.sub.2S.sub.5, K.sub.2S.sub.6, K.sub.2S.sub.7, K.sub.2S.sub.8, K.sub.2S.sub.9, or K.sub.2S.sub.10.

8. The method of claim 2, wherein said conducting polymer-sulfur hybrid contains an intrinsically conductive polymer selected from polyaniline, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyfuran, a bi-cyclic polymer, a sulfonated derivative thereof, or a combination thereof.

9. The method of claim 1, wherein said graphene sheets are selected from pristine graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, graphene fluoride, graphene chloride, nitrogenated graphene, hydrogenated graphene, doped graphene, functionalized graphene, or a combination thereof.

10. The method of claim 1, wherein said graphene sheets comprise single-layer graphene or few-layer graphene, wherein said few-layer graphene is defined as a graphene platelet formed of less than 10 graphene planes.

11. The method of claim 1, wherein said graphene sheets have a length or width from 5 nm to 5 μm.

12. The method of claim 1, wherein said sulfonated elastomer matrix has a lithium ion conductivity from 10.sup.−5 S/cm to 5×10.sup.−2 S/cm at room temperature.

13. The method of claim 1, wherein said cell has a sulfur utilization efficiency from 80% to 99%.

14. The method of claim 1, wherein said electrolyte is selected from polymer electrolyte, polymer gel electrolyte, composite electrolyte, ionic liquid electrolyte, organic liquid electrolyte, solid-state electrolyte, or a combination thereof.

15. A method of producing a rechargeable alkali metal-sulfur cell, said method comprising: (a) providing an anode active material layer; (b) providing particulates comprising primary particles of a sulfur-containing material encapsulated or embraced by a thin layer of a conductive sulfonated elastomer composite, wherein said conductive sulfonated elastomer composite comprises from 0% to 50% by weight of a conductive reinforcement material dispersed in a sulfonated elastomeric matrix material, wherein said conductive reinforcement material is selected from graphene sheets, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, metal nanowires, conductive polymer fibers, or a combination thereof and said thin layer of conductive sulfonated elastomer composite has a thickness from 1 nm to 10 μm, a fully recoverable tensile strain from 2% to 500%, a lithium ion conductivity from 10.sup.−7 S/cm to 5×10.sup.−2 S/cm, and an electrical conductivity from 10.sup.−7 S/cm to 100 S/cm when measured at room temperature; (c) forming said particulates, a resin binder, and an optional conductive additive into a cathode active material layer; and (d) combining said anode active material layer, an optional anode current collector, said cathode active material layer, an optional cathode current collector, an optional porous separator disposed between said anode active material layer and said cathode active material layer, and an electrolyte to form said alkali metal-sulfur cell, wherein said sulfonated elastomeric matrix material contains a material selected from a sulfonated version of natural polyisoprene, synthetic polyisoprene, polybutadiene, chloroprene rubber, polychloroprene, butyl rubber, styrene-butadiene rubber, nitrile rubber, ethylene propylene rubber, ethylene propylene diene rubber, metallocene-based poly(ethylene-co-octene) elastomer. poly(ethylene-co-butene) elastomer, styrene-ethylene-butadiene-styrene elastomer, epichlorohydrin rubber, polyacrylic rubber, silicone rubber, fluorosilicone rubber, perfluoroelastomers, polyether block amides, chlorosulfonated polyethylene, ethylene-vinyl acetate, protein resilin, protein elastin, ethylene oxide-epichlorohydrin copolymer, polyurethane, urethane-urea copolymer, or a combination thereof.

16. A method of producing a rechargeable alkali metal-sulfur cell, said method comprising: (a) providing an anode active material layer; (b) providing particulates comprising primary particles of a sulfur-containing material encapsulated or embraced by a thin layer of a conductive sulfonated elastomer composite, wherein said conductive sulfonated elastomer composite comprises from 0% to 50% by weight of a conductive reinforcement material dispersed in a sulfonated elastomeric matrix material, wherein said conductive reinforcement material is selected from graphene sheets, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, metal nanowires, conductive polymer fibers, or a combination thereof and said thin layer of conductive sulfonated elastomer composite has a thickness from 1 nm to 10 μm, a fully recoverable tensile strain from 2% to 500%, a lithium ion conductivity from 10.sup.−7 S/cm to 5×10.sup.−2 S/cm, and an electrical conductivity from 10.sup.−7 S/cm to 100 S/cm when measured at room temperature; (c) forming said particulates, a resin binder, and an optional conductive additive into a cathode active material layer; and (d) combining said anode active material layer, an optional anode current collector, said cathode active material layer, an optional cathode current collector, an optional porous separator disposed between said anode active material layer and said cathode active material layer, and an electrolyte to form said alkali metal-sulfur cell, wherein said sulfonated elastomer matrix further contains from 0.1% to 50% by weight of a lithium ion-conducting additive or sodium ion-conducting additive dispersed therein.

17. The method of claim 16, wherein said lithium ion-conducting additive is selected from the group consisting of Li.sub.2CO.sub.3, Li.sub.2O, Li.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4, LiOH, LiX, ROCO.sub.2Li, HCOLi, ROLi, (ROCO.sub.2Li).sub.2, (CH.sub.2OCO.sub.2Li).sub.2, Li.sub.2S, Li.sub.xSO.sub.y, and combinations thereof, wherein X=F, Cl, I, or Br, R=a hydrocarbon group, 0<x ≤1 and 1≤y≤4.

18. The method of claim 16, wherein said lithium ion-conducting additive is selected from the group consisting of lithium perchlorate LiClO.sub.4, lithium hexafluorophosphate LiPF.sub.6, lithium borofluoride LiBF.sub.4, lithium hexafluoroarsenide LiAsF.sub.6, lithium trifluoro-metasulfonate LiCF.sub.3S0.sub.3, bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium LiN(CF.sub.3S0.sub.2).sub.2, lithium bis(oxalato)borate LiBOB, lithium oxalyldifluoroborate LiBF.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4, lithium oxalyldifluoroborate LiBF.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4, lithium nitrate LiNO.sub.3, Li-fluoroalkyl-phosphates LiPF.sub.3(CF.sub.2CF.sub.3).sub.3, lithium bisperfluoro-ethysulfonylimide LiBETI, lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonimide LiTFSI, an ionic liquid-based lithium salt, and combinations thereof.

19. The method of claim 16, wherein said lithium ion-conducting additive is selected from a lower molecular version of poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), polypropylene oxide (PPO), poly(acrylonitrile) (PAN), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF), poly bis-methoxy ethoxyethoxide-phosphazene, polyvinyl chloride, polydimethylsiloxane, poly(vinylidene fluoride)-hexafluoropropylene (PVDF-HFP), a sulfonated derivative thereof, or a combination thereof, wherein said lower molecular version is defined as having a molecular weight less than 500,000 g/mole.

20. A method of producing a rechargeable alkali metal-sulfur cell, said method comprising: (a) providing an anode active material layer; (b) providing particulates comprising primary particles of a sulfur-containing material encapsulated or embraced by a thin layer of a conductive sulfonated elastomer composite, wherein said conductive sulfonated elastomer composite comprises from 0% to 50% by weight of a conductive reinforcement material dispersed in a sulfonated elastomeric matrix material, wherein said conductive reinforcement material is selected from graphene sheets, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, metal nanowires, conductive polymer fibers, or a combination thereof and said thin layer of conductive sulfonated elastomer composite has a thickness from 1 nm to 10 μm, a fully recoverable tensile strain greater than 5%, a lithium ion conductivity from 10.sup.−7 S/cm to 5×10.sup.−2 S/cm, and an electrical conductivity from 10.sup.−7 S/cm to 100 S/cm when measured at room temperature; (c) forming said particulates, a resin binder, and an optional conductive additive into a cathode active material layer; and (d) combining said anode active material layer, an optional anode current collector, said cathode active material layer, an optional cathode current collector, an optional porous separator disposed between said anode active material layer and said cathode active material layer, and an electrolyte to form said alkali metal-sulfur cell wherein said alkali metal-sulfur cell exhibits a cycle-life no less than 1000 cycles.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) FIG. 1(A) Schematic of a prior art alkali metal-sulfur battery cell;

(2) FIG. 1(B) Schematic of another prior art alkali metal-sulfur battery cell;

(3) FIG. 2 The issues associated with the cathode active material of a prior art alkali metal battery; for instance, a metal sulfide particle encapsulated by a protective shell (e.g. carbon shell) in a core-shell structure inevitably leads to breakage of the shell and that a metal sulfide particle encapsulated with a protective layer leads to poor contact between the contracted metal sulfide particle and the rigid protective shell during battery charge.

(4) FIG. 3 Schematic of the presently invented sulfonated elastomer composite-encapsulated particles of a sulfur cathode active material. The high elastic deformation extent of the polymer shell enables the shell to expand and contract congruently and conformingly with the core particle.

(5) FIG. 4 Schematic of four types of sulfonated elastomer composite-embraced S-containing cathode active material particles.

(6) FIG. 5 The cathode specific capacity values of three Li—S battery having a cathode active material based on a S/CNT hybrid featuring (1) sulfonated PU elastomer composite-encapsulated S/CNT hybrid particles, (2) carbon-encapsulated C/CNT hybrid particles, and (3) un-protected S/CNT hybrid particles, respectively.

(7) FIG. 6 The cathode specific capacity values of two Li—S batteries having a cathode active material layer featuring (1) sulfonated SBS elastomer composite-encapsulated S/graphene hybrid particles and (2) un-protected S/graphene hybrid particles, respectively.

(8) FIG. 7 The cathode specific capacity values of two Na—S cells having a cathode active material layer featuring (1) sulfonated elastomer composite-encapsulated sulfur-MCMB (activated) composite particles; and (2) un-protected sulfur-MCMB (activated) composite particles, respectively.

(9) FIG. 8 Ragone plots (cell power density vs. cell energy density) of two Li metal-sulfur cells: one featuring a cathode layer composed of sulfonated elastomer composite-encapsulated particles of S-coated graphene sheets and the other non-encapsulated.

(10) FIG. 9 Ragone plots (cell power density vs. cell energy density) of 4 alkali metal-sulfur cells: Na—S cell featuring sulfonated elastomer composite-encapsulated particles of exfoliated graphite worms electrochemically impregnated with sulfur, Na—S cell featuring un-encapsulated particles of exfoliated graphite worms electrochemically impregnated with sulfur, K—S cell featuring sulfonated elastomer composite-encapsulated particles of exfoliated graphite worms electrochemically impregnated with sulfur, and K—S cell featuring un-protected S-impregnated graphite worms.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

(11) For convenience, the following discussion of preferred embodiments is primarily based on Li—S cells, but the same or similar composition, structure, and methods are applicable to Na—S and K—S cells. Examples are presented for Li—S cells, room-temperature Na—S cells, and K—S cells.

(12) A. Alkali Metal-Sulfur Cells (Using Lithium-Sulfur Cells as an Example)

(13) The specific capacity and specific energy of a Li—S cell (or Na—S, or K—S cell) are dictated by the actual amount of sulfur that can be implemented in the cathode active layer (relative to other non-active ingredients, such as the binder resin and conductive filler) and the utilization rate of this sulfur amount (i.e. the utilization efficiency of the cathode active material or the actual proportion of S that actively participates in storing and releasing lithium ions). Using Li—S cell as an illustrative example, a high-capacity and high-energy Li—S cell requires a high amount of S in the cathode active layer (i.e. relative to the amounts of non-active materials, such as the binder resin, conductive additive, and other modifying or supporting materials) and a high S utilization efficiency). The present invention provides such a cathode active layer, its constituent powder mass product, the resulting Li—S cell, and a method of producing such a cathode active layer and battery.

(14) In some embodiments, the alkali metal-sulfur cell comprises (a) an anode active material layer and an optional anode current collector supporting the anode active material layer; (b) a cathode active material layer and an optional cathode current collector supporting the cathode active material layer; and (c) an electrolyte with an optional porous separator layer in ionic contact with the anode active material layer and the cathode active material layer (separator is not required where a solid state electrolyte is used, for instance); wherein the cathode active material layer contains multiple particulates of a sulfur-containing material selected from a sulfur-carbon hybrid, sulfur-graphite hybrid, sulfur-graphene hybrid, conducting polymer-sulfur hybrid, metal sulfide, sulfur compound, or a combination thereof and wherein at least one of the particulates is composed of one or a plurality of the sulfur-containing material particles being embraced or encapsulated by a thin layer of a sulfonated elastomer composite having a recoverable tensile strain no less than 2% when measured without an additive or reinforcement (but can contain a lithium salt or sodium salt and/or a liquid solvent), a lithium ion conductivity no less than 10.sup.−6 S/cm (typically from 10.sup.−5 S/cm to 5×10.sup.−2 S/cm, measured at room temperature), and a thickness from 0.5 nm to 10 μm (typically from 1 nm to 1 μm, but preferably <100 nm and more preferably <10 nm).

(15) The sulfonated elastomer composite has from 0.01% to 50% by weight of a conductive reinforcement material dispersed in a sulfonated elastomeric matrix material based on the total weight of the sulfonated elastomer composite, wherein the conductive reinforcement material is selected from graphene sheets, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, metal nanowires, conductive polymer fibers, or a combination thereof.

(16) The conducting reinforcement material is preferably in a filamentary or sheet-like form, such as a nanotube, nanofiber, nanowire, nanoplatelet, or nanodisc. In some embodiments, the conductive reinforcement material is selected from graphene sheets, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, metal nanowires, conductive polymer fibers, or a combination thereof. These are electron-conducting materials and the sulfonated elastomer matrix is a lithium ion- and sodium ion-conducting material. By combining such a sulfonated elastomer and a conducting reinforcement (0-50% by weight, preferably 0.1%-30%, and more preferably 0.1-15%), one obtains a composite that is both electron conducting and ion-conducting and capable of allowing electrons and lithium ions to migrate in and out of the particulate without much resistance.

(17) The graphene sheets to be dispersed in a sulfonated elastomer matrix are preferably selected from pristine graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, graphene fluoride, graphene chloride, nitrogenated graphene, hydrogenated graphene, doped graphene, functionalized graphene, or a combination thereof. The graphene sheets preferably comprise single-layer graphene or few-layer graphene, wherein the few-layer graphene is defined as a graphene platelet formed of less than 10 graphene planes. The carbon nanotubes (CNTs) can be a single-walled CNT or multi-walled CNT. The carbon nanofibers may be vapor-grown carbon nanofibers or electro-spinning based carbon nanofibers (e.g. electro-spun polymer nanofibers that are subsequently carbonized).

(18) Preferably, the sulfonated elastomeric matrix material contains a sulfonated version of an elastomer selected from natural polyisoprene, synthetic polyisoprene, polybutadiene, chloroprene rubber, polychloroprene, butyl rubber, styrene-butadiene rubber, nitrile rubber, ethylene propylene rubber, ethylene propylene diene rubber, metallocene-based poly(ethylene-co-octene) (POE) elastomer, poly(ethylene-co-butene) (PBE) elastomer, styrene-ethylene-butadiene-styrene (SEBS) elastomer, epichlorohydrin rubber, polyacrylic rubber, silicone rubber, fluorosilicone rubber, perfluoroelastomers, polyether block amides, chlorosulfonated polyethylene, ethylene-vinyl acetate, thermoplastic elastomer, protein resilin, protein elastin, ethylene oxide-epichlorohydrin copolymer, polyurethane, urethane-urea copolymer, or a combination thereof.

(19) The sulfur-carbon hybrid, sulfur-graphite hybrid, sulfur-graphene hybrid, or conducting polymer-sulfur hybrid may be a mixture, blend, composite, or chemically or physically bonded entity of sulfur or sulfide with a carbon, graphite, graphene, or conducting polymer material. For instance, a sulfur-graphene hybrid can be a simple mixture (in a particle form) of sulfur and graphene prepared by ball-milling. Such a hybrid can contain sulfur bonded on surfaces of a graphene oxide sheet, etc. As another example, the sulfur-carbon hybrid can be a simple mixture (in a particle form) of sulfur and carbon nanotubes, or can contain sulfur residing in pores of activated carbon particles. In the instant cathode layer, these particles of sulfur hybrid are embraced by a sulfonated elastomer composite.

(20) In the rechargeable alkali metal-sulfur cell, the metal sulfide may contain a material denoted by M .sub.xS.sub.y, wherein x is an integer from 1 to 3 and y is an integer from 1 to 10, and M is a metal element selected from an alkali metal, an alkaline metal selected from Mg or Ca, a transition metal, a metal from groups 13 to 17 of the periodic table, or a combination thereof. The metal element M preferably is selected from Li, Na, K, Mg, Zn, Cu, Ti, Ni, Co, Fe, or Al. In some preferred embodiments, the metal sulfide in the cathode layer contains Li.sub.2S, Li.sub.2S.sub.2, Li.sub.2S.sub.3, Li.sub.2S.sub.4, Li.sub.2S.sub.5, Li.sub.2S.sub.6, Li.sub.2S.sub.7, Li.sub.2S.sub.8, Li.sub.2S.sub.9, Li.sub.2S.sub.10, Na.sub.2S, Na.sub.2S.sub.2, Na.sub.2S.sub.3, Na.sub.2S.sub.4, Na.sub.2S.sub.5, Na.sub.2S.sub.6, Na.sub.2S.sub.7, Na.sub.2S.sub.8, Na.sub.2S.sub.9, Na.sub.2S.sub.10, K.sub.2S, K.sub.2S.sub.2, K.sub.2S.sub.3, K.sub.2S.sub.4, K.sub.2S.sub.5, K.sub.2S.sub.6, K.sub.2S.sub.7, K.sub.2S.sub.8, K.sub.2S.sub.9, or K.sub.2S.sub.10.

(21) In the rechargeable alkali metal-sulfur cell, the carbon or graphite material in the cathode active material layer may be selected from mesophase pitch, mesophase carbon, mesocarbon microbead (MCMB), coke particle, expanded graphite flake, artificial graphite particle, natural graphite particle, highly oriented pyrolytic graphite, soft carbon particle, hard carbon particle, carbon nanotube, carbon nanofiber, carbon fiber, graphite nanofiber, graphite fiber, carbonized polymer fiber, activated carbon, carbon black, or a combination thereof. The graphene may be selected from pristine graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide (RGO), graphene fluoride, nitrogenated graphene, hydrogenated graphene, doped graphene, functionalized graphene, or a combination thereof.

(22) The conducting polymer-sulfur hybrid may preferably contain an intrinsically conductive polymer selected from polyaniline, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyfuran, a bi-cyclic polymer, a sulfonated derivative thereof, or a combination thereof. This can be a simple mixture of sulfur or metal sulfide with a conducting polymer.

(23) In certain embodiments, the sulfonated elastomer composite contains from 0.1% to 50% by weight of a lithium ion-, sodium ion-, or potassium ion-conducting additive dispersed therein. The lithium ion-conducting additive, along with the conductive reinforcement material, is dispersed in the sulfonated elastomer matrix and is selected from Li.sub.2CO.sub.3, Li.sub.2O, Li.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4, LiOH, LiX, ROCO.sub.2Li, HCOLi, ROLi, (ROCO.sub.2Li).sub.2, (CH.sub.2OCO.sub.2Li).sub.2, Li.sub.2S, Li.sub.xSO.sub.y, or a combination thereof, wherein X=F, Cl, I, or Br, R=a hydrocarbon group, x=0-1, y=1-4.

(24) The lithium ion-conducting additive may be selected from lithium perchlorate, LiClO.sub.4, lithium hexafluorophosphate LiPF.sub.6, lithium borofluoride LiBF.sub.4, lithium hexafluoroarsenide LiAsF.sub.6, lithium trifluoro-metasulfonate LiCF.sub.3SO.sub.3, bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium LiN(CF.sub.3SO.sub.2).sub.2, lithium bis(oxalato)borate LiBOB, lithium oxalyldifluoroborate LiBF.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4, lithium oxalyldifluoroborate LiBF.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4, lithium nitrate LiNO.sub.3, Li-fluoroalkyl-phosphates LiPF.sub.3(CF.sub.2CF.sub.3).sub.3, lithium bisperfluoro-ethysulfonylimide LiBETI, lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonimide LiTFSI, an ionic liquid-based lithium salt, or a combination thereof. The sodium ion- or potassium ion-conducting additive, dispersed in the sulfonated elastomer matrix, may be selected from sodium perchlorate (NaClO.sub.4), potassium perchlorate (KClO.sub.4), sodium hexafluorophosphate (NaPF.sub.6), potassium hexafluorophosphate (KPF.sub.6), sodium borofluoride (NaBF.sub.4), potassium borofluoride (KBF.sub.4), sodium hexafluoroarsenide, potassium hexafluoroarsenide, sodium trifluoro-metasulfonate (NaCF.sub.3SO.sub.3), potassium trifluoro-metasulfonate (KCF.sub.3SO.sub.3), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide sodium (NaN(CF.sub.3SO.sub.2).sub.2), sodium trifluoromethanesulfonimide (NaTFSI), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide potassium (KN(CF.sub.3SO.sub.2).sub.2), or a combination thereof.

(25) A sulfonated elastomer is a high-elasticity material, which exhibits an elastic deformation that is at least 2% when measured under uniaxial tension (without an additive or reinforcement in the polymer, but can contain a lithium salt and/or liquid solvent dispersed in the polymer). In the field of materials science and engineering, the “elastic deformation” is defined as a deformation of a material (when being mechanically stressed) that is essentially fully recoverable and the recovery is essentially instantaneous upon release of the load. The elastic deformation of the sulfonated elastomer is preferably and typically greater than 5%, more preferably and typically greater than 10%, further more preferably and typically greater than 30%, still more preferably greater than 50%, and most preferably greater than 100%.

(26) As illustrated in FIG. 4, the present invention provides four major types of particulates of sulfonated elastomer composite-encapsulated cathode active material particles. The first one is a single-particle particulate containing a cathode active material core 10 (e.g. particle of a sulfur-CNT mixture) encapsulated by a sulfonated elastomer composite shell 12. The second is a multiple-particle particulate containing multiple cathode active material particles 14 (e.g. particles of sulfur-graphene mixture, sulfur-carbon black mixture, activated carbon particles having pores impregnated with S, lithium polysulfide particles, etc.), optionally along with other non-active materials (e.g. particles of graphite or hard carbon, not shown) or conductive additive, which are encapsulated by a sulfonated elastomer composite 16. The third is a single-particle particulate containing a cathode active material core 18 coated by a carbon or graphene layer 20 (or other conductive material) and further encapsulated by a sulfonated elastomer composite 22. The fourth is a multiple-particle particulate containing multiple cathode active material particles 24 coated with a conductive protection layer 26 (carbon, graphene, etc.), optionally along with other non-active materials (e.g. particles of graphite or hard carbon, not shown) or conductive additive, which are encapsulated by a sulfonated elastomer composite shell 28. These cathode active material particles can be based on sulfur compound, metal polysulfide, etc., instead of neat sulfur.

(27) As schematically illustrated in the upper portion of FIG. 3, a sulfur-based particle can be encapsulated by a sulfonated elastomer composite shell to form a core-shell structure (sulfur core and composite shell in this example). As the lithium-sulfur battery is discharged, the cathode active material (e.g. sulfur in the sulfonated elastomer composite-encapsulated S/CNT particle) reacts with lithium ions to form lithium polysulfide which expands in volume. Due to the high elasticity of the encapsulating shell (the sulfonated elastomer composite), the shell will not be broken into segments (in contrast to the broken carbon shell). That the sulfonated elastomer composite shell remains intact, preventing the exposure of the underlying lithium sulfide to electrolyte and, thus, preventing the lithium sulfide from dissolving in the electrolyte during repeated charges/discharges of the battery. This strategy prevents continuing migration of lithium polysulfide to the anode side where it reacts with lithium and is unable to return to the cathode (the shuttle effect). This shuttle effect is mainly responsible for continued capacity decay in a conventional Li—S, room-temperature Na—S, or K—S cell.

(28) Alternatively, referring to the lower portion of FIG. 3, lithium sulfide is used as the cathode active material. A layer of sulfonated elastomer composite may encapsulate around the lithium polysulfide particle to form a core-shell structure. When the Li—S battery is charged and lithium ions are released from the cathode, the cathode active material particle contracts. However, the sulfonated elastomer composite is capable of elastically shrinking in a conformal manner; hence, leaving behind no gap between the protective shell and the sulfur. Such a configuration is amenable to subsequent lithium reaction with sulfur. The sulfonated elastomer composite shell expands and shrinks congruently with the expansion and shrinkage of the encapsulated core cathode active material particle, enabling long-term cycling stability of a Li—S or Na—S battery.

(29) B. Sulfonated Elastomer Composites

(30) Preferably and typically, the sulfonated elastomer composite has a lithium ion conductivity no less than 10.sup.−6 S/cm, more preferably no less than 10.sup.−4 S/cm, further preferably no less than 10.sup.−3 S/cm, and most preferably no less than 10.sup.−2 S/cm. In some embodiments, the sulfonated elastomer composite contains no other additive or filler dispersed therein. In others, the sulfonated elastomer composite contains from 0.1% to 50% (preferably 1% to 35%) by weight of a lithium ion-conducting additive dispersed in a sulfonated elastomer matrix material. The sulfonated elastomer composite must have a high elasticity (elastic deformation strain value >2%). An elastic deformation is a deformation that is fully recoverable and the recovery process is essentially instantaneous (no significant time delay). The sulfonated elastomer composite can exhibit an elastic deformation from 5% up to 800% (8 times of its original length), more typically from 10% to 500%, and further more typically from 30% to 300%.

(31) It may be noted that although a metal or a plastic typically has a high ductility (i.e. can be extended to a large strain without breakage), the majority of the deformation is plastic deformation (non-recoverable) and only a small amount of elastic deformation (typically <1% and more typically <0.2%). Thus, a metal or a plastic does not qualify as a high-elasticity material.

(32) Further, we have unexpectedly discovered that the presence of an amount of a lithium salt or sodium salt (1-35% by weight) and a liquid solvent (0-50%) can significantly increase the lithium-ion or sodium ion conductivity of the sulfonated elastomer matrix.

(33) The first step for producing encapsulated active material particles is to dissolve a sulfonated elastomer or its precursor (e.g. uncured oligomer or polymer) in a solvent to form a polymer solution. Subsequently, particles of a cathode active material (e.g. primary particles of sulfur-carbon hybrid, sulfur-graphite hybrid, sulfur-graphene hybrid, sulfur compound, metal sulfide, etc.) are dispersed in this polymer solution to form a suspension (dispersion or slurry) of an active material particle-elastomer mixture. This suspension can then be subjected to a solvent removal treatment while individual particles remain substantially separated from one another. The uncured polymer/oligomer precipitates out to deposit on surfaces of these active material particles. This can be accomplished, for instance, via spray drying, ultrasonic spraying, air-assisted spraying, aerosolization, and other secondary particle formation procedures. The precursor is then cured or polymerized.

(34) The sulfonated elastomer composite may form a mixture or blend with an electron-conducting polymer selected from polyaniline, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyfuran, a bi-cyclic polymer, derivatives thereof (e.g. sulfonated versions), or a combination thereof.

(35) In some embodiments, the sulfonated elastomer composite may form a mixture with a lithium ion-conducting polymer selected from regular molecular weight (<500,000 g/mole) version of poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), polypropylene oxide (PPO), poly(acrylonitrile) (PAN), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVdF), poly bis-methoxy ethoxyethoxide-phosphazene, polyvinyl chloride, polydimethylsiloxane, poly(vinylidene fluoride)-hexafluoropropylene (PVDF-HFP), a derivative thereof (e.g. sulfonated versions), or a combination thereof.

(36) A wide variety of rubbers or elastomers may be readily sulfonated using known sulfonation procedures. Unsaturated rubbers that can be vulcanized to become elastomer include natural polyisoprene (e.g. cis-1,4-polyisoprene natural rubber (NR) and trans-1,4-polyisoprene gutta-percha), synthetic polyisoprene (IR for isoprene rubber), polybutadiene (BR for butadiene rubber), chloroprene rubber (CR), polychloroprene (e.g. Neoprene, Baypren etc.), butyl rubber (copolymer of isobutylene and isoprene, IIR), including halogenated butyl rubbers (chloro butyl rubber (CIIR) and bromo butyl rubber (BIIR), styrene-butadiene rubber (copolymer of styrene and butadiene, SBR), nitrile rubber (copolymer of butadiene and acrylonitrile, NBR), Some elastomers are saturated rubbers that cannot be cured by sulfur vulcanization; they are made into a rubbery or elastomeric material via different means: e.g. by having a copolymer domain that holds other linear chains together. Each of these elastomers can be used to encapsulate particles of an anode active material by one of several means: melt mixing (followed by pelletizing and ball-milling, for instance), solution mixing (dissolving the anode active material particles in an uncured polymer, monomer, or oligomer, with or without an organic solvent) followed by drying (e.g. spray drying), interfacial polymerization, or in situ polymerization of elastomer in the presence of anode active material particles.

(37) Sulfonated saturated rubbers and related elastomers in this category include EPM (ethylene propylene rubber, a copolymer of ethylene and propylene), EPDM rubber (ethylene propylene diene rubber, a terpolymer of ethylene, propylene and a diene-component), epichlorohydrin rubber (ECO), polyacrylic rubber (ACM, ABR), silicone rubber (SI, Q, VMQ), fluorosilicone rubber (FVMQ), fluoroelastomers (FKM, and FEPM; such as Viton, Tecnoflon, Fluorel, Aflas and Dai-El), perfluoroelastomers (FFKM: Tecnoflon PFR, Kalrez, Chemraz, Perlast), polyether block amides (PEBA), chlorosulfonated polyethylene (CSM; e.g. Hypalon), and ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA), thermoplastic elastomers (TPE), protein resilin, and protein elastin. Sulfonated polyurethane and its copolymers (e.g. urea-urethane copolymer) are particularly useful elastomeric shell materials for encapsulating anode active material particles.

(38) A variety of synthetic methods may be used to sulfonate an elastomer or rubber: (i) exposure to sulfur trioxide in vapor phase or in solution, possibly in presence of Lewis bases such as triethyl phosphate, tetrahydrofuran, dioxane, or amines; (ii) chlorosulfonic acid in diethyl ether; (iii) concentrated sulfuric acid or mixtures of sulfuric acid with alkyl hypochlorite; (iv) bisulfites combined to dioxygen, hydrogen peroxide, metallic catalysts, or peroxo derivates; and (v) acetyl sulfate.

(39) Sulfonation of an elastomer or rubber may be conducted before, during, or after curing of the elastomer or rubber. Further, sulfonation of the elastomer or rubber may be conducted before or after the particles of an electrode active material are embraced or encapsulated by the elastomer/rubber or its precursor (monomer or oligomer). Sulfonation of an elastomer or rubber may be accomplished by exposing the elastomer/rubber to a sulfonation agent in a solution state or melt state, in a batch manner or in a continuous process. The sulfonating agent may be selected from sulfuric acid, sulfonic acid, sulfur trioxide, chlorosulfonic acid, a bisulfate, a sulfate (e.g. zinc sulfate, acetyl sulfate, etc.), a mixture thereof, or a mixture thereof with another chemical species (e.g. acetic anhydride, thiolacetic acid, or other types of acids, etc.). In addition to zinc sulfate, there are a wide variety of metal sulfates that may be used as a sulfonating agent; e.g. those sulfates containing Mg, Ca, Co, Li, Ba, Na, Pb, Ni, Fe, Mn, K, Hg, Cr, and other transition metals, etc.

(40) For instance, a triblock copolymer, poly(styrene-isobutylene-styrene) or SIBS, may be sulfonated to several different levels ranging from 0.36 to 2.04 mequiv./g (13 to 82 mol % of styrene; styrene being 19 mol % of the unsulfonated block copolymer). Sulfonation of SIBS may be performed in solution with acetyl sulfate as the sulfonating agent. First, acetic anhydride reacts with sulfuric acid to form acetyl sulfate (a sulfonating agent) and acetic acid (a by-product). Then, excess water is removed since anhydrous conditions are required for sulfonation of SIBS. The SIBS is then mixed with the mixture of acetyl sulfate and acetic acid. Such a sulfonation reaction produces sulfonic acid substituted to the para-position of the aromatic ring in the styrene block of the polymer. Elastomers having an aromatic ring may be sulfonated in a similar manner.

(41) A sulfonated elastomer also may be synthesized by copolymerization of a low level of functionalized (i.e. sulfonated) monomer with an unsaturated monomer (e.g. olefinic monomer, isoprene monomer or oligomer, butadiene monomer or oligomer, etc.).

(42) C. Encapsulation of Cathode Active Material Particles by a Sulfonated Elastomer Composite

(43) Several micro-encapsulation processes require the sulfonated elastomer composite or its precursor (monomer or oligomer) to be dissolvable in a solvent. Fortunately, all the sulfonated elastomer composites or their precursors used herein are soluble in water or other common solvents. The polymer or its precursor can be readily dissolved in a common organic solvent to form a solution. This solution can then be used to encapsulate solid particles via several of the micro-encapsulation methods to be discussed in what follows. Upon encapsulation, the polymer shell is then polymerized, cured or hardened, or the solvent is removed.

(44) There are three broad categories of micro-encapsulation methods that can be implemented to produce sulfonated elastomer composite-encapsulated particles of a cathode active material: physical methods, physico-chemical methods, and chemical methods. The physical methods include pan-coating, air-suspension coating, centrifugal extrusion, vibration nozzle, and spray-drying methods. The physico-chemical methods include ionotropic gelation and coacervation-phase separation methods. The chemical methods include interfacial polycondensation, interfacial cross-linking, in-situ polymerization, and matrix polymerization.

(45) Pan-coating method: The pan coating process involves tumbling the active material particles in a pan or a similar device while the encapsulating material (e.g. monomer/oligomer, polymer melt, polymer/solvent solution, comprising a conductive reinforcement material dispersed therein) is applied slowly until a desired encapsulating shell thickness is attained.

(46) Air-suspension coating method: In the air suspension coating process, the solid particles (core material) are dispersed into the supporting air stream in an encapsulating chamber. A controlled stream of a polymer-solvent solution (uncured polymer or its monomer or oligomer dissolved in a solvent, or its monomer or oligomer alone in a liquid state, plus a conductive reinforcement materials, such as CNT, CNF, and graphene) is concurrently introduced into this chamber, allowing the solution to hit and coat the suspended particles. These suspended particles are encapsulated (fully coated) with a polymer or its precursor molecules while the volatile solvent is removed, leaving a very thin layer of polymer (or its precursor, which is cured/hardened subsequently) on surfaces of these particles. This process may be repeated several times until the required parameters, such as full-coating thickness (i.e. encapsulating shell or wall thickness), are achieved. The air stream which supports the particles also helps to dry them, and the rate of drying is directly proportional to the temperature of the air stream, which can be adjusted for optimized shell thickness.

(47) In a preferred mode, the particles in the encapsulating zone portion may be subjected to re-circulation for repeated coating. Preferably, the encapsulating chamber is arranged such that the particles pass upwards through the encapsulating zone, then are dispersed into slower moving air and sink back to the base of the encapsulating chamber, enabling repeated passes of the particles through the encapsulating zone until the desired encapsulating shell thickness is achieved.

(48) Centrifugal extrusion: Active material particles may be encapsulated using a rotating extrusion head containing concentric nozzles. In this process, a stream of core fluid (slurry containing particles of an active material and a conductive reinforcement material dispersed in a solvent) is surrounded by a sheath of shell solution or melt. As the device rotates and the stream moves through the air it breaks, due to Rayleigh instability, into droplets of core, each coated with the shell solution. While the droplets are in flight, the molten shell may be hardened or the solvent may be evaporated from the shell solution. If needed, the capsules can be hardened after formation by catching them in a hardening bath. Since the drops are formed by the breakup of a liquid stream, the process is only suitable for liquid or slurry. A high production rate can be achieved. Up to 22.5 kg of microcapsules can be produced per nozzle per hour and extrusion heads containing 16 nozzles are readily available.

(49) Vibrational nozzle method: Core-shell encapsulation or matrix-encapsulation of an active material can be conducted using a laminar flow through a nozzle and vibration of the nozzle or the liquid. The vibration has to be done in resonance with the Rayleigh instability, leading to very uniform droplets. The liquid can consist of any liquids with limited viscosities (1-50,000 mPa.Math.s): emulsions, suspensions or slurry containing the active material. The solidification can be done according to the used gelation system with an internal gelation (e.g. sol-gel processing, melt) or an external (additional binder system, e.g. in a slurry).

(50) Spray-drying: Spray drying may be used to encapsulate particles of an active material when the active material is dissolved or suspended in a melt or polymer solution. In spray drying, the liquid feed (solution or suspension) is atomized to form droplets which, upon contacts with hot gas, allow solvent to get vaporized and thin elastomer composite shell to fully embrace the solid particles of the active material.

(51) Coacervation-phase separation: This process consists of three steps carried out under continuous agitation: (a) Formation of three immiscible chemical phases: liquid manufacturing vehicle phase, core material phase and encapsulation material phase. The core material is dispersed in a solution of the encapsulating polymer (or its monomer or oligomer). The encapsulating material phase, which is an immiscible polymer in liquid state, is formed by (i) changing temperature in polymer solution, (ii) addition of salt, (iii) addition of non-solvent, or (iv) addition of an incompatible polymer in the polymer solution. (b) Deposition of encapsulation shell material: core material being dispersed in the encapsulating polymer solution, encapsulating polymer material coated around core particles, and deposition of liquid polymer embracing around core particles by polymer adsorbed at the interface formed between core material and vehicle phase; and (c) Hardening of encapsulating shell material: shell material being immiscible in vehicle phase and made rigid via thermal, cross-linking, or dissolution techniques.

(52) Interfacial polycondensation and interfacial cross-linking: Interfacial polycondensation entails introducing the two reactants to meet at the interface where they react with each other. This is based on the concept of the Schotten-Baumann reaction between an acid chloride and a compound containing an active hydrogen atom (such as an amine or alcohol), polyester, polyurea, polyurethane, or urea-urethane condensation. Under proper conditions, thin flexible encapsulating shell (wall) forms rapidly at the interface. A solution of the active material and a diacid chloride are emulsified in water and an aqueous solution containing an amine and a polyfunctional isocyanate is added. A base may be added to neutralize the acid formed during the reaction. Condensed polymer shells form instantaneously at the interface of the emulsion droplets. Interfacial cross-linking is derived from interfacial polycondensation, wherein cross-linking occurs between growing polymer chains and a multi-functional chemical groups to form an elastomer shell material.

(53) In-situ polymerization: In some micro-encapsulation processes, active materials particles are fully coated with a monomer or oligomer first. Then, direct polymerization and cross-linking of the monomer or oligomer is carried out on the surfaces of these material particles.

(54) Matrix polymerization: This method involves dispersing and embedding a core material in a polymeric matrix during formation of the particles. This can be accomplished via spray-drying, in which the particles are formed by evaporation of the solvent from the matrix material. Another possible route is the notion that the solidification of the matrix is caused by a chemical change.

(55) D. Additional Details about the Encapsulated Particulates, the Cathode Layer, and the Structure of Li—S, Na—S, and K—S Cells

(56) The anode active material layer of an alkali metal-sulfur cell can contain a foil or coating of Li, Na, or K supported by a current collector (e.g. Cu foil), as illustrated in the left-hand portion of FIG. 1(A) for a prior art Li—S cell. Alternatively, the anode active material may contain, for instance, particles of prelithiated Si particles or surface-stabilized Li particles, as illustrated in the left-hand portion of FIG. 2(B). However, the cathode layer in the instant cell is distinct, as already discussed above.

(57) The electrolyte for an alkali metal-sulfur cell may be an organic electrolyte, ionic liquid electrolyte, gel polymer electrolyte, solid-state electrolyte (e.g. polymer solid electrolyte or inorganic solid electrolyte), quasi-solid electrolyte or a combination thereof. The electrolyte typically contains an alkali metal salt (lithium salt, sodium salt, and/or potassium salt) dissolved in a solvent.

(58) The solvent may be selected from 1,3-dioxolane (DOL), 1,2-dimethoxyethane (DME), tetraethylene glycol dimethylether (TEGDME), poly(ethylene glycol) dimethyl ether (PEGDME), diethylene glycol dibutyl ether (DEGDBE), 2-ethoxyethyl ether (EEE), sulfone, sulfolane, ethylene carbonate (EC), dimethyl carbonate (DMC), methylethyl carbonate (MEC), diethyl carbonate (DEC), ethyl propionate, methyl propionate, propylene carbonate (PC), gamma-butyrolactone (γ-BL), acetonitrile (AN), ethyl acetate (EA), propyl formate (PF), methyl formate (MF), toluene, xylene, methyl acetate (MA), fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC), vinylene carbonate (VC), allyl ethyl carbonate (AEC), a hydrofluoroether, a room temperature ionic liquid solvent, or a combination thereof.

(59) The electrolytic salts to be incorporated into a non-aqueous electrolyte may be selected from a lithium salt such as lithium perchlorate (LiClO.sub.4), lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF.sub.6), lithium borofluoride (LiBF.sub.4), lithium hexafluoroarsenide (LiAsF.sub.6), lithium trifluoro-metasulfonate (LiCF.sub.3SO.sub.3), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium [LiN(CF.sub.3SO.sub.2).sub.2], lithium bis(oxalato)borate (LiBOB), lithium oxalyldifluoroborate (LiBF.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4), lithium oxalyldifluoroborate (LiBF.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4), lithium nitrate (LiNO.sub.3), Li-fluoroalkyl-phosphates (LiPF3(CF.sub.2CF.sub.3).sub.3), lithium bisperfluoroethysulfonylimide (LiBETI), an ionic liquid salt, sodium perchlorate (NaClO.sub.4), potassium perchlorate (KClO.sub.4), sodium hexafluorophosphate (NaPF.sub.6), potassium hexafluorophosphate (KPF.sub.6), sodium borofluoride (NaBF.sub.4), potassium borofluoride (KBF.sub.4), sodium hexafluoroarsenide, potassium hexafluoroarsenide, sodium trifluoro-metasulfonate (NaCF.sub.3SO.sub.3), potassium trifluoro-metasulfonate (KCF.sub.3SO.sub.3), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide sodium (NaN(CF.sub.3SO.sub.2).sub.2), sodium trifluoromethanesulfonimide (NaTFSI), and bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide potassium (KN(CF.sub.3SO.sub.2).sub.2). Among them, LiPF.sub.6, LiBF.sub.4 and LiN(CF.sub.3SO.sub.2).sub.2 are preferred for Li—S cells, NaPF.sub.6 and LiBF.sub.4 for Na—S cells, and KBF.sub.4 for K—S cells. The content of aforementioned electrolytic salts in the non-aqueous solvent is preferably 0.5 to 3.0 M (mol/L) at the cathode side and 3.0 to >10 M at the anode side.

(60) The ionic liquid is composed of ions only. Ionic liquids are low melting temperature salts that are in a molten or liquid state when above a desired temperature. For instance, a salt is considered as an ionic liquid if its melting point is below 100° C. If the melting temperature is equal to or lower than room temperature (25° C.), the salt is referred to as a room temperature ionic liquid (RTIL). The IL salts are characterized by weak interactions, due to the combination of a large cation and a charge-delocalized anion. This results in a low tendency to crystallize due to flexibility (anion) and asymmetry (cation).

(61) A typical and well-known ionic liquid is formed by the combination of a 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium (EMI) cation and an N,N-bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonamide (TFSI) anion. This combination gives a fluid with an ionic conductivity comparable to many organic electrolyte solutions and a low decomposition propensity and low vapor pressure up to ˜300-400° C. This implies a generally low volatility and non-flammability and, hence, a much safer electrolyte for batteries.

(62) Ionic liquids are basically composed of organic ions that come in an essentially unlimited number of structural variations owing to the preparation ease of a large variety of their components. Thus, various kinds of salts can be used to design the ionic liquid that has the desired properties for a given application. These include, among others, imidazolium, pyrrolidinium and quaternary ammonium salts as cations and bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl) imide, bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide, and hexafluorophosphate as anions. Based on their compositions, ionic liquids come in different classes that basically include aprotic, protic and zwitterionic types, each one suitable for a specific application.

(63) Common cations of room temperature ionic liquids (RTILs) include, but not limited to, tetraalkylammonium, di-, tri-, and tetra-alkylimidazolium, alkylpyridinium, dialkyl-pyrrolidinium, dialkylpiperidinium, tetraalkylphosphonium, and trialkylsulfonium. Common anions of RTILs include, but not limited to, BF.sub.4.sup.+, B(CN).sub.4.sup.−, CH.sub.3BF.sub.3.sup.+, CH2CHBF.sub.3.sup.−, CF.sub.3BF.sub.3.sup.−, C.sub.2F.sub.5BF.sub.3.sup.−, n-C.sub.3F.sub.7BF.sub.3.sup.−, n-C.sub.4F.sub.9BF.sub.3.sup.−, PF.sub.6.sup.−, CF.sub.3CO.sub.2.sup.−, CF.sub.3SO.sub.3.sup.−, N(SO.sub.2CF.sub.3).sub.2.sup.−, N(COCF.sub.3)(SO.sub.2CF.sub.3).sup.−, N(SO.sub.2F).sub.2.sup.−, N(CN).sub.2.sup.−, C(CN).sub.3.sup.−, SCN.sup.−, SeCN.sup.−, CuCl.sub.2, AlCl.sub.4, F(HF).sub.2.3.sup.−, etc. Relatively speaking, the combination of imidazolium- or sulfonium-based cations and complex halide anions such as AlCl.sub.4.sup.−, BF.sub.4.sup.−, CF.sub.3CO.sub.2.sup.−, CF.sub.3SO.sub.3.sup.−, NTf.sub.2.sup.−, N(SO.sub.2F).sub.2.sup.−, or F(HF).sub.2.3.sup.− results in RTILs with good working conductivities.

(64) RTILs can possess archetypical properties such as high intrinsic ionic conductivity, high thermal stability, low volatility, low (practically zero) vapor pressure, non-flammability, the ability to remain liquid at a wide range of temperatures above and below room temperature, high polarity, high viscosity, and wide electrochemical windows. These properties, except for the high viscosity, are desirable attributes when it comes to using an RTIL as an electrolyte ingredient (a salt and/or a solvent) in a Li—S cell.

(65) In the presently invented products (including the alkali metal cell, the cathode active layer, and the cathode active material powder), the core material (to be encapsulated by a thin layer of sulfonated elastomer composite) contains the sulfur-carbon hybrid, sulfur-graphite hybrid, sulfur-graphene hybrid, conducting polymer-sulfur hybrid, metal sulfide, sulfur compound, etc. These hybrid or compound materials are produced in the form of particles that contain a mixture, blend, composite, or bonded entity of sulfur or sulfide with a carbon, graphite, graphene, or conducting polymer material. Metal sulfides (e.g. lithium polysulfide, sodium polysulfide, etc.) and sulfur compounds are readily available in a fine particle form. Sulfur can be combined with a conducting material (carbon, graphite, graphene, and/or conducting polymer) to form a composite, mixture, or bonded entity (e.g. sulfur bonded on graphene oxide surface).

(66) There are many well-known procedures that can be used to make the aforementioned sulfur-containing materials into particles. For instance, one may mix solid sulfur with a carbon or graphite material to form composite particles using ball-milling. The resulting particles are typically ellipsoidal or potato-like in shape having a size from 1 to 20 μm. Also, one may infiltrate S or sulfide into the pores of porous carbon or graphite particles (e.g. activated carbon, mesoporous carbon, activated carbon fibers, etc.) using vapor phase infiltration, solution infiltration, chemical infiltration, or electrochemical infiltration. Alternatively, one may deposit sulfur onto surfaces of graphene sheets, CNTs, carbon nanofibers, etc. and then form these S-coated nanomaterials into a spherical or ellipsoidal shape using high-intensity ball-milling, spray-drying (of their suspensions), aerosol formation, etc. These particles are then encapsulated with a sulfonated elastomer composite using the micro-encapsulation processes discussed above.

(67) The cathode in a conventional Li—S cell typically has less than 70% by weight of sulfur in a composite cathode composed of sulfur and the conductive additive/support. Even when the sulfur content in the prior art composite cathode reaches or exceeds 70% by weight, the specific capacity of the composite cathode is typically significantly lower than what is expected based on theoretical predictions. For instance, the theoretical specific capacity of sulfur is 1,675 mAh/g. A composite cathode composed of 70% sulfur (S) and 30% carbon black (CB), without any binder, should be capable of storing up to 1,675×70%=1,172 mAh/g. Unfortunately, the observed specific capacity is typically less than 75% or 879 mAh/g (often less than 50% or 586 mAh/g in this example) of what could be achieved. In other words, the active material (S) utilization rate is typically less than 75% (or even <50%). This has been a major issue in the art of Li—S cells and there has been no solution to this problem.

(68) Thus, it is highly advantageous to obtain a high sulfur loading and yet, concurrently, maintaining an ultra-thin/small thickness/diameter of sulfur for significantly enhanced sulfur utilization efficiency, energy density and power density. For instance, one can deposit nanoscaled sulfur (1-5 nm thick) on graphene surfaces using chemical, electrochemical, or vapor deposition to form S-coated or S-bonded graphene sheets. These S-coated or S-bonded graphene sheets are then aggregated together using a tumbling mixing, ball-milling, or spraying procedure. These steps enable the preparation of S-conducting material hybrids that contain 85%-99% by weight sulfur, yet maintaining a coating thickness or particle diameter from 1 nm to 5 nm. This ultra-small dimension enables fast lithium diffusion and lithium-sulfur reactions, leading to high S utilization efficiency (hence, high energy density) even at high charge-discharge rates. By implementing a sulfonated elastomer composite around these hybrid particles or sulfur compound/sulfide particles, we have significantly reduced and even eliminated the shuttling effect, resulting in an alkali metal battery that has long cycle-life.

(69) Again, the shuttling effect is related to the tendency for sulfur or alkali metal polysulfide that forms at the cathode to get dissolved in the solvent and for the dissolved lithium polysulfide species to migrate from the cathode to the anode, where they irreversibly react with lithium to form species that prevent sulfide from returning back to the cathode during the subsequent discharge operation of the Li—S cell (the detrimental shuttling effect). It appears that the embracing sulfonated elastomer composite has effectively trapped sulfur and metal polysulfide therein, thereby preventing or reducing such a dissolution and migration issue. We have solved the most critical, long-standing problem of alkali metal-sulfur batteries.

(70) This cathode active material layer may further comprise a binder resin that bonds the multiple particulates (of encapsulated sulfur-containing particles) together to form the cathode active material layer. In the aforementioned cathode active material layer, the binder resin is not part of the multiple particulates (i.e. not included inside the core portion of a particulate) and is external to the multiple particulates. The sulfonated elastomer composite does not embrace the binder resin and the binder resin is not embedded in the sulfonated elastomer composite. The binder resin does not embrace the particulate as well.

(71) In all versions of the above-discussed alkali metal-sulfur cells, the anode active material may contain, as an example, lithium metal foil (or powder) or a high-capacity Si, Sn, Al, or SnO.sub.2 capable of storing a great amount of lithium. The cathode active material may contain pure sulfur (if the anode active material contains lithium), lithium polysulfide, or any sulfur containing compound, molecule, or polymer. If the cathode active material includes lithium-containing species (e.g. lithium polysulfide) when the cell is made, the anode active material can be any material capable of storing a large amount of lithium (e.g. Si, Ge, Sn, Al, SnO.sub.2, etc.).

(72) At the anode side, when lithium metal is used as the sole anode active material in a Li—S cell, there is concern about the formation of lithium dendrites, which could lead to internal shorting and thermal runaway. Herein, we have used two approaches, separately or in combination, to address this dendrite formation issue: one involving the use of a high-concentration electrolyte at the anode side and the other the use of a nanostructure composed of conductive nanofilaments. For the latter, multiple conductive nanofilaments are processed to form an integrated aggregate structure, preferably in the form of a closely packed web, mat, or paper, characterized in that these filaments are intersected, overlapped, or somehow bonded (e.g., using a binder material) to one another to form a network of electron-conducting paths. The integrated structure has substantially interconnected pores to accommodate electrolyte. The nanofilament may be selected from, as examples, a carbon nanofiber (CNF), graphite nanofiber (GNF), carbon nanotube (CNT), metal nanowire (MNW), conductive nanofibers obtained by electro-spinning, conductive electro-spun composite nanofibers, nanoscaled graphene platelet (NGP), or a combination thereof. The nanofilaments may be bonded by a binder material selected from a polymer, coal tar pitch, petroleum pitch, mesophase pitch, coke, or a derivative thereof.

(73) Nanofibers may be selected from the group consisting of an electrically conductive electrospun polymer fiber, electro-spun polymer nanocomposite fiber comprising a conductive filler, nanocarbon fiber obtained from carbonization of an electro-spun polymer fiber, electrospun pitch fiber, and combinations thereof. For instance, a nanostructured electrode can be obtained by electro-spinning of polyacrylonitrile (PAN) into polymer nanofibers, followed by carbonization of PAN. It may be noted that some of the pores in the structure, as carbonized, are greater than 100 nm and some smaller than 100 nm.

(74) The presently invented cathode active layer may be incorporated in one of at least four broad classes of rechargeable lithium metal cells (or, similarly, for sodium metal or potassium metal cells): (A) Lithium metal-sulfur with a conventional anode configuration: The cell contains an optional cathode current collector, a presently invented cathode layer, a separator/electrolyte, and an anode current collector. Potential dendrite formation may be overcome by using a high-concentration electrolyte or solid-state electrolyte at the anode. (B) Lithium metal-sulfur cell with a nanostructured anode configuration: The cell contains an optional cathode current collector, a cathode herein invented, a separator/electrolyte, an optional anode current collector, and a nanostructure to accommodate lithium metal that is deposited back to the anode during a charge or re-charge operation. This nanostructure (web, mat, or paper) of nanofilaments provide a uniform electric field enabling uniform Li metal deposition, reducing the propensity to form dendrites. This configuration can provide a dendrite-free cell for a long and safe cycling behavior. (C) Lithium ion-sulfur cell with a conventional anode: For instance, the cell contains an anode composed of anode active graphite particles bonded by a binder, such as polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) or styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR). The cell also contains a cathode current collector, a cathode of the instant invention, a separator/electrolyte, and an anode current collector; and (D) Lithium ion-sulfur cell with a nanostructured anode: For instance, the cell contains a web of nanofibers coated with Si coating or bonded with Si nanoparticles. The cell also contains an optional cathode current collector, a cathode herein invented, a separator/electrolyte, and an anode current collector. This configuration provides an ultra-high capacity, high energy density, and a safe and long cycle life.

(75) In the lithium-ion sulfur cell (e.g. as described in (C) and (D) above), the anode active material can be selected from a wide range of high-capacity materials, including (a) silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), antimony (Sb), bismuth (Bi), zinc (Zn), aluminum (Al), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), manganese (Mn), titanium (Ti), iron (Fe), and cadmium (Cd), and lithiated versions thereof, (b) alloys or intermetallic compounds of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, or Cd with other elements, and lithiated versions thereof, wherein said alloys or compounds are stoichiometric or non-stoichiometric; (c) oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides, phosphides, selenides, and tellurides of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Fe, Ni, Co, Ti, Mn, or Cd, and their mixtures or composites, and lithiated versions thereof; (d) salts and hydroxides of Sn and lithiated versions thereof; (e) carbon or graphite materials and prelithiated versions thereof; and combinations thereof. Nonlithiated versions may be used if the cathode side contains lithium polysulfides or other lithium sources when the cell is made.

(76) A possible lithium metal cell may be comprised of an anode current collector, an electrolyte phase (optionally but preferably supported by a porous separator, such as a porous polyethylene-polypropylene co-polymer film), a cathode of the instant invention, and an optional cathode collector.

(77) For a sodium ion-sulfur cell or potassium ion-sulfur cell, the anode active material layer can contain an anode active material selected from the group consisting of: (a) sodium- or potassium-doped silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), antimony (Sb), bismuth (Bi), zinc (Zn), aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), manganese (Mn), cadmium (Cd), and mixtures thereof, (b) sodium- or potassium-containing alloys or intermetallic compounds of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Co, Ni, Mn, Cd, and their mixtures; (c) sodium- or potassium-containing oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides, phosphides, selenides, tellurides, or antimonides of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Fe, Ti, Co, Ni, Mn, Cd, and mixtures or composites thereof; (d) sodium or potassium salts; (e) particles of graphite, hard carbon, soft carbon or carbon particles and pre-sodiated versions thereof (predoped or preloaded with Na), and combinations thereof.

Example 1: Mixing of Sulfur with Carbon/Graphite Particles Via Ball-Milling to Form Sulfur-Containing Particles

(78) Sulfur and lithium polysulfide particles and particles of soft carbon (i.e. graphitizable disordered carbon), natural graphite, mesophase carbon, expanded graphite flakes, carbon nanofibers, and graphene sheets (50% to 85% by weight of S in the resulting composite or hybrid) were physically blended and then subjected to ball milling for 2-24 hours to obtain S-containing composite particles (typically in a ball or potato shape). The particles, having a typical size of 1-10 μm, containing various S contents, were then embraced with a thin layer of sulfonated elastomer composite (to be further described later). Some of the resulting particulates, along with a conductive additive (5% by wt.) and a resin binder (PVDF, 5%), were then combined and made into a layer of cathode using the well-known slurry coating procedure.

Example 2: Simple Sulfur Melt or Liquid Solution Mixing

(79) One way to combine sulfur with a conducting material (e.g. carbon/graphite particles) is to use a solution or melt mixing process. Highly porous activated carbon particles, chemically etched mesocarbon microbeads (activated MCMBs), and exfoliated graphite worms were mixed with sulfur melt at 117-120° C. (slightly above the melting point of S, 115.2° C.) for 10-60 minutes to obtain sulfur-impregnated carbon particles.

Example 3: Preparation of Sulfur-Coated Graphene Sheets and their Secondary Particles (Particulates)

(80) The step involves producing vapor of elemental sulfur, allowing deposition of S vapor on surfaces of single-layer or few-layer graphene sheets. The graphene sheets, suspended in a liquid medium (e.g. graphene oxide in water or graphene in NMP), were sprayed onto a substrate (e.g. glass surface) to form a thin layer of graphene sheets. This thin layer of graphene was then exposed to sublimation-generated physical vapor deposition. Sublimation of solid sulfur occurs at a temperature greater than 40° C., but a significant and practically useful sublimation rate typically does not occur until the temperature is above 100° C. We typically used 117-160° C. with a vapor deposition time of 10-120 minutes to deposit a thin film of sulfur on graphene surface (sulfur thickness being approximately from 1 nm to 10 nm). This thin layer of graphene having a thin film of sulfur deposited thereon was then easily broken into pieces of S-coated graphene sheets using an air jet mill. Some of these S-coated graphene sheets were directly embraced with a sulfonated elastomer composite. Some of these sheets were made into secondary particles of approximately 5-15 μm in diameter (e.g. via spray-drying) and then encapsulated by the sulfonated elastomer composite.

Example 4: Electrochemical Impregnation of S in Various Porous Carbon/Graphite Particles

(81) The electrochemical impregnation of S into pores of activated carbon fibers, activated carbon nanotubes, and activated artificial graphite particles was conducted by aggregating these particles/fibers into a loosely packed layer. In this approach, an anode, electrolyte, and a layer of such a loosely packed structure (serving as a cathode layer) are positioned in an external container outside of a lithium-sulfur cell. The needed apparatus is similar to an electro-plating system, which is well-known in the art.

(82) In a typical procedure, a metal polysulfide (M.sub.xS.sub.y) was dissolved in a solvent (e.g. mixture of DOL/DME in a volume ratio from 1:3 to 3:1) to form an electrolyte solution. An amount of a lithium salt may be optionally added, but this is not required for external electrochemical deposition. A wide variety of solvents can be utilized for this purpose and there is no theoretical limit to what type of solvents can be used; any solvent can be used provided that there is some solubility of the metal polysulfide in this desired solvent. A greater solubility would mean a larger amount of sulfur can be derived from the electrolyte solution.

(83) The electrolyte solution was then poured into a chamber or reactor under a dry and controlled atmosphere condition (e.g. He or nitrogen gas). A metal foil was used as the anode and a layer of the porous structure as the cathode; both being immersed in the electrolyte solution. This configuration constitutes an electrochemical impregnation and deposition system. The step of electrochemically impregnating sulfur into pores was conducted at a current density in the range of 1 mA/g to 10 A/g, based on the layer weight of the porous carbon/graphite particles/fibers.

(84) The chemical reactions that occur in this reactor may be represented by the following equation: M.sub.xS.sub.y.fwdarw.M.sub.xS.sub.y−z+zS (typically z=1-4). The sulfur coating thickness or particle diameter and the amount of S coating/particles impregnated may be controlled by the electrochemical reaction current density, temperature and time. In general, a lower current density and lower reaction temperature lead to a more uniform impregnation of S and the reactions are easier to control. A longer reaction time leads to a larger amount of S saturated in the pores.

(85) Additionally, the electrochemical method is capable of rapidly converting the impregnated S into metal polysulfide (lithium polysulfide, sodium polysulfide, and potassium polysulfide, etc.).

Example 5: Chemical Reaction-Induced Impregnation of Sulfur

(86) A chemical impregnation method was herein utilized to prepare S-impregnated carbon fibers that have been chemically activated. The procedure began with adding 0.58 g Na.sub.2S into a flask that had been filled with 25 ml distilled water to form a Na.sub.2S solution. Then, 0.72 g elemental S was suspended in the Na.sub.2S solution and stirred with a magnetic stirrer for about 2 hours at room temperature. The color of the solution changed slowly to orange-yellow as the sulfur dissolved. After dissolution of the sulfur, a sodium polysulfide (Na.sub.2S.sub.x) solution was obtained (x=4-10).

(87) Subsequently, a sulfur-impregnated carbon fiber sample was prepared by a chemical impregnation method in an aqueous solution. First, 180 mg of expansion-treated carbon fibers was suspended in 180 ml ultrapure water with a surfactant and then sonicated at 50° C. for 5 hours to form a stable carbon fiber dispersion. Subsequently, the Na.sub.2S.sub.x solution was added to the above-prepared dispersions in the presence of 5 wt % surfactant cetyl trimethyl-ammonium bromide (CTAB), the as-prepared carbon fiber/Na.sub.2S.sub.x blended solution was sonicated for another 2 hours and then titrated into 100 ml of 2 mol/L HCOOH solution at a rate of 30-40 drops/min and stirred for 2 hours. Finally, the precipitate was filtered and washed with acetone and distilled water several times to eliminate salts and impurities. After filtration, the precipitate was dried at 50° C. in a drying oven for 48 hours. The reaction may be represented by the following reaction: S.sub.x.sup.2−+2H.sup.+.fwdarw.(x−1) S+H.sub.2S.

Example 6: Redox Chemical Reaction-Induced Impregnation of Sulfur in Activated MCMBs and Activated Needle Coke

(88) In this chemical reaction-based deposition process, sodium thiosulfate (Na.sub.2S.sub.2O.sub.3) was used as a sulfur source and HCl as a reactant. An activated MCMB-water or activated needle coke-water suspension was prepared and then the two reactants (HCl and Na.sub.2S.sub.2O.sub.3) were poured into this suspension. The reaction was allowed to proceed at 25-75° C. for 1-3 hours, leading to impregnation of S into pores of the activated structures. The reaction may be represented by the following reaction: 2HCl+Na.sub.2S.sub.2O.sub.3.fwdarw.2NaCl+S↓SO.sub.2↑+H.sub.2O.

Example 7: Sulfonation of Triblock Copolymer Poly(Styrene-Isobutylene-Styrene) or SIBS

(89) An example of the sulfonation procedure used in this study is summarized as follows: a 10% (w/v) solution of SIBS (50 g) and a desired amount of graphene oxide sheets in methylene chloride (500 ml) was prepared. The solution was stirred and refluxed at approximately 40° C., while a specified amount of acetyl sulfate in methylene chloride was slowly added to begin the sulfonation reaction. Acetyl sulfate in methylene chloride was prepared prior to this reaction by cooling 150 ml of methylene chloride in an ice bath for approximately 10 min. A specified amount of acetic anhydride and sulfuric acid was then added to the chilled methylene chloride under stirring conditions. Sulfuric acid was added approximately 10 min after the addition of acetic anhydride with acetic anhydride in excess of a 1:1 mole ratio. This solution was then allowed to return to room temperature before addition to the reaction vessel.

(90) After approximately 5 h, the reaction was terminated by slowly adding 100 ml of methanol. The reacted polymer solution was then precipitated with deionized water. The precipitate was washed several times with water and methanol, separately, and then dried in a vacuum oven at 50° C. for 24 h. This washing and drying procedure was repeated until the pH of the wash water was neutral. After this process, the final polymer yield was approximately 98% on average. This sulfonation procedure was repeated with different amounts of acetyl sulfate to produce several sulfonated polymers with various levels of sulfonation or ion-exchange capacities (IECs). The mol % sulfonation is defined as: mol %=(moles of sulfonic acid/moles of styrene)×100%, and the IEC is defined as the mille-equivalents of sulfonic acid per gram of polymer (mequiv./g).

(91) After sulfonation and washing of each polymer, the S-SIBS samples were dissolved in a mixed solvent of toluene/hexanol (85/15, w/w) with concentrations ranging from 0.5 to 2.5% (w/v). Desired amounts of active material particles, along with a desired amount of graphene sheets (if not added at an earlier stage) were then added into the solution to form slurry samples. The slurry samples were separately spray-dried to form sulfonated elastomer-embraced particles.

(92) Alternatively, sulfonation may be conducted on the elastomer/graphene composite layer after this encapsulating layer is formed (e.g. after the active material particle(s) is/are encapsulated.

Example 8: Synthesis of Sulfonated Polybutadiene (PB) by Free Radical Addition of

(93) Thiolacetic Acid (TAA) Followed by in Situ Oxidation with Performic Acid A representative procedure is given as follows. PB (8.0 g) was dissolved in toluene (800 mL) under vigorous stirring for 72 h at room temperature in a 1 L round-bottom flask. Benzophenone (BZP) (0.225 g; 1.23 mmol; BZP/olefin molar ratio=1:120) and TAA (11.9 mL; 0.163 mol, TAA/olefin molar ratio=1.1) and a desired amount of graphene sheets (0.1%-40% by wt.) were introduced into the reactor, and the polymer solution was irradiated for 1 h at room temperature with UV light of 365 nm and power of 100 W.

(94) The resulting thioacetylated polybutadiene (PB-TA)/graphene composite was isolated by pouring 200 mL of the toluene solution in a plenty of methanol and the polymer recovered by filtration, washed with fresh methanol, and dried in vacuum at room temperature (Yield=3.54 g). Formic acid (117 mL; 3.06 mol; HCOOH/olefin molar ratio=25), along with a desired amount of anode active material particles, from 10 to 100 grams) were added to the toluene solution of PB-TA at 50° C. followed by slow addition of 52.6 mL of hydrogen peroxide (35 wt %; 0.61 mol; H.sub.2O.sub.2/olefin molar ratio=5) in 20 min. We would like to caution that the reaction is autocatalytic and strongly exothermic. The resulting slurry was spray-dried to obtain sulfonated polybutadiene (PB-SA)/graphene composite-encapsulated S particles.

(95) It may be noted that graphene sheets may be added at different stages of the procedure: before, during or after BZP is added or before/during/after the active material particles are added.

Example 9: Synthesis of Sulfonated SBS

(96) Sulfonated styrene-butadiene-styrene triblock copolymer (SBS) based elastomer was directly synthesized. First, SBS (optionally along with graphene sheets) is first epoxidized by performic acid formed in situ, followed by ring-opening reaction with an aqueous solution of NaHSO.sub.3. In a typical procedure, epoxidation of SBS was carried out via reaction of SBS in cyclohexane solution (SBS concentration=11 g/100 mL) with performic acid formed in situ from HCOOH and 30% aqueous H.sub.2O.sub.2 solution at 70° C. for 4 h, using 1 wt % poly(ethylene glycol)/SBS as a phase transfer catalyst. The molar ratio of H.sub.2O.sub.2/HCOOH was 1. The product (ESBS) was precipitated and washed several times with ethanol, followed by drying in a vacuum dryer at 60° C.

(97) Subsequently, ESBS was first dissolved in toluene to form a solution with a concentration of 10 g/100 mL, into which was added 5 wt % TEAB/ESBS as a phase transfer catalyst and 5 wt % DMA/ESBS as a ring-opening catalyst. Herein, TEAB=tetraethyl ammonium bromide and DMA=N,N-dimethyl aniline. An aqueous solution of NaHSO.sub.3 and Na.sub.2SO.sub.3 (optionally along with graphene sheets, if not added earlier) was then added with vigorous stirring at 60° C. for 7 h at a molar ratio of NaHSO.sub.3/epoxy group at 1.8 and a weight ratio of Na.sub.2SO.sub.3/NaHSO.sub.3 at 36%. This reaction allows for opening of the epoxide ring and attaching of the sulfonate group according to the following reaction:

(98) ##STR00001##
The reaction was terminated by adding a small amount of acetone solution containing antioxidant. The mixture was washed with distilled water three times, and then precipitated by ethanol, followed by drying in a vacuum dryer at 50° C. It may be noted that particles of an electrode active material and graphene sheets (or CNTs, etc.) may be added during various stages of the aforementioned procedure (e.g. right from the beginning, or prior to the ring opening reaction).

Example 10: Synthesis of Sulfonated SBS by Free Radical Addition of Thiolacetic Acid (TAA) Followed by In Situ Oxidation with Performic Acid

(99) A representative procedure is given as follows. SBS (8.000 g) in toluene (800 mL) was left under vigorous stirring for 72 hours at room temperature and heated later on for 1 h at 65° C. in a 1 L round-bottom flask until the complete dissolution of the polymer. Thus, benzophenone (BZP, 0.173 g; 0.950 mmol; BZP/olefin molar ratio=1:132) and TAA (8.02 mL; 0.114 mol, TAA/olefin molar ratio=1.1) were added, and the polymer solution was irradiated for 4 h at room temperature with UV light of 365 nm and power of 100 W. To isolate a fraction of the thioacetylated sample (S(B-TA)S), 20 mL of the polymer solution was treated with plenty of methanol, and the polymer was recovered by filtration, washed with fresh methanol, and dried in vacuum at room temperature. The toluene solution containing the thioacetylated polymer was equilibrated at 50° C., and 107.4 mL of formic acid (2.84 mol; HCOOH/olefin molar ratio=27.5) and 48.9 mL of hydrogen peroxide (35 wt %; 0.57 mol; H.sub.2O.sub.2/olefin molar ratio=5.5) were added in about 15 min. It may be cautioned that the reaction is autocatalytic and strongly exothermic! Particles of the desired active materials were added before or after this reaction. The resulting slurry was stirred for 1 h, and then most of the solvent was distilled off in vacuum at 35° C. Finally, the slurry containing the sulfonated elastomer was coagulated in a plenty of acetonitrile, isolated by filtration, washed with fresh acetonitrile, and dried in vacuum at 35° C. to obtain sulfonated elastomers.

(100) Other elastomers (e.g. polyisoprene, EPDM, EPR, polyurethane, etc.) were sulfonated in a similar manner. Alternatively, all the rubbers or elastomers can be directly immersed in a solution of sulfuric acid, a mixture of sulfuric acid and acetyl sulfate, or other sulfonating agent discussed above to produce sulfonated elastomers/rubbers.

(101) Again, both graphene sheets (or other conductive reinforcement material) and S cathode material particles may be added at various stages of the procedure.

Example 11: Graphene Oxide from Sulfuric Acid Intercalation and Exfoliation of MCMBs

(102) MCMB (mesocarbon microbeads) were supplied by China Steel Chemical Co. This material has a density of about 2.24 g/cm.sup.3 with a median particle size of about 16 μm. MCMBs (10 grams) were intercalated with an acid solution (sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and potassium permanganate at a ratio of 4:1:0.05) for 48 hours. Upon completion of the reaction, the mixture was poured into deionized water and filtered. The intercalated MCMBs were repeatedly washed in a 5% solution of HCl to remove most of the sulfate ions. The sample was then washed repeatedly with deionized water until the pH of the filtrate was neutral. The slurry was dried and stored in a vacuum oven at 60° C. for 24 hours. The dried powder sample was placed in a quartz tube and inserted into a horizontal tube furnace pre-set at a desired temperature, 800° C.-1,100° C. for 30-90 seconds to obtain graphene samples. A small quantity of graphene was mixed with water and ultrasonicated at 60-W power for 10 minutes to obtain a suspension. A small amount was sampled out, dried, and investigated with TEM, which indicated that most of the NGPs were between 1 and 10 layers. The oxygen content of the graphene powders (GO or RGO) produced was from 0.1% to approximately 25%, depending upon the exfoliation temperature and time.

Example 12: Oxidation and Exfoliation of Natural Graphite

(103) Graphite oxide was prepared by oxidation of graphite flakes with sulfuric acid, sodium nitrate, and potassium permanganate at a ratio of 4:1:0.05 at 30° C. for 48 hours, according to the method of Hummers [U.S. Pat. No. 2,798,878, Jul. 9, 1957]. Upon completion of the reaction, the mixture was poured into deionized water and filtered. The sample was then washed with 5% HCl solution to remove most of the sulfate ions and residual salt and then repeatedly rinsed with deionized water until the pH of the filtrate was approximately 4. The intent was to remove all sulfuric and nitric acid residue out of graphite interstices. The slurry was dried and stored in a vacuum oven at 60° C. for 24 hours.

(104) The dried, intercalated (oxidized) compound was exfoliated by placing the sample in a quartz tube that was inserted into a horizontal tube furnace pre-set at 1,050° C. to obtain highly exfoliated graphite. The exfoliated graphite was dispersed in water along with a 1% surfactant at 45° C. in a flat-bottomed flask and the resulting graphene oxide (GO) suspension was subjected to ultrasonication for a period of 15 minutes to obtain a homogeneous graphene-water suspension.

Example 13: Preparation of Pristine Graphene Sheets

(105) Pristine graphene sheets were produced by using the direct ultrasonication or liquid-phase exfoliation process. In a typical procedure, five grams of graphite flakes, ground to approximately 20 μm in sizes, were dispersed in 1,000 mL of deionized water (containing 0.1% by weight of a dispersing agent, Zonyl® FSO from DuPont) to obtain a suspension. An ultrasonic energy level of 85 W (Branson S450 Ultrasonicator) was used for exfoliation, separation, and size reduction of graphene sheets for a period of 15 minutes to 2 hours. The resulting graphene sheets were pristine graphene that had never been oxidized and were oxygen-free and relatively defect-free. There are substantially no other non-carbon elements.

Example 14: Preparation of Graphene Fluoride (GF) Sheets

(106) Several processes have been used by us to produce GF, but only one process is herein described as an example. In a typical procedure, highly exfoliated graphite (HEG) was prepared from intercalated compound C.sub.2F.xClF.sub.3. HEG was further fluorinated by vapors of chlorine trifluoride to yield fluorinated highly exfoliated graphite (FHEG). A pre-cooled Teflon reactor was filled with 20-30 mL of liquid pre-cooled ClF.sub.3, and then the reactor was closed and cooled to liquid nitrogen temperature. Subsequently, no more than 1 g of HEG was put in a container with holes for ClF.sub.3 gas to access the reactor. After 7-10 days, a gray-beige product with approximate formula C.sub.2F was formed. GF sheets were then dispersed in halogenated solvents to form suspensions.

Example 15: Preparation of Nitrogenated Graphene Sheets

(107) Graphene oxide (GO), synthesized in Example 2, was finely ground with different proportions of urea and the pelletized mixture heated in a microwave reactor (900 W) for 30 s. The product was washed several times with deionized water and vacuum dried. In this method graphene oxide gets simultaneously reduced and doped with nitrogen. The products obtained with graphene/urea mass ratios of 1/0.5, 1/1 and 1/2 are designated as N-1, N-2 and N-3 respectively and the nitrogen contents of these samples were 14.7, 18.2 and 17.5 wt. % respectively as determined by elemental analysis. These nitrogenated graphene sheets remain dispersible in water.

Example 16: Cathode Active Material Layers Containing Sulfonated Elastomer Composite-Encapsulated Sulfur-Carbon/Graphite/Graphene Particles

(108) Selected amounts of sulfur-carbon, sulfur-graphite, and sulfur-graphene hybrid/composite particles were then each made into sulfonated elastomer composite-encapsulated particulates. In the above procedure, two routes were followed to prepare sulfonated elastomer-encapsulated hybrid particles. In the first route, hybrid particles were dispersed in the polymer solution to form a slurry. In some samples, 0.5%-5% of a conductive filler (e.g. graphene sheets or CNTs) was added into the slurry. The slurries were separately spray-dried to form particulates of polymer-encapsulated hybrid particles.

(109) In the second route, 1-45% of lithium salt was dissolved in the solution to form a series of lithium salt-containing solutions. Then, hybrid particles were dispersed in the lithium-containing polymer solution to form a series of slurries. In some samples, 0.5%-5% of a conductive filler (e.g. graphene sheets) was added into the slurry. Each slurry (with or without graphene sheets) was spray-dried to form particulates of sulfonated elastomer- or sulfonated elastomer/lithium salt-encapsulated hybrid particles.

(110) Several tensile testing specimens were cut from sulfonated elastomer films (with or without additive/reinforcement) and tested with a universal testing machine. The testing results indicate that this series of elastomers have an elastic deformation from approximately 160% to 360%. These above are for neat sulfonated elastomers without any additive. The addition of up to 30% by weight of a lithium salt typically reduces this elasticity down to a reversible tensile strain from approximately 10% to 100%.

(111) Several series of Li metal-sulfur and Li-ion sulfur cells were prepared using the presently prepared cathode layers. The first series is a Li metal cell containing a copper foil as an anode current collector and the second series is also a Li metal cell having a nanostructured anode of conductive filaments (based on electro-spun carbon fibers or CNFs). The third series is a Li-ion cell having a nanostructured anode of conductive filaments (based on electro-spun carbon fibers coated with a thin layer of Si using CVD) plus a copper foil current collector. The fourth series is a Li-ion cell having a prelithiated graphite-based anode active material as an example of the more conventional anode. We have found that after large numbers of charge/discharge cycles, the cells containing a nanostructured anode were essentially dendrite-free.

(112) Charge storage capacities were measured periodically and recorded as a function of the number of cycles. The specific discharge capacity herein referred to is the total charge inserted into the cathode during the discharge, per unit mass of the composite cathode (counting the weights of cathode active material, conductive additive or support, binder, and any optional additive combined). The specific charge capacity refers to the amount of charges per unit mass of the composite cathode. The specific energy and specific power values presented in this section are based on the total cell weight. The morphological or micro-structural changes of selected samples after a desired number of repeated charging and recharging cycles were observed using both transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM).

(113) The cycling behaviors of 3 cells are shown in FIG. 5, which indicates that sulfonated PU/graphene encapsulation of S/CNT particles provides the most stable cycling response. Carbon coating alone does not help to improve cycling stability by much.

(114) In an additional experiment, a thin film of such a rotaxane network polymer (1 nm-10 μm) was implemented between a porous separator and a cathode active material layer containing non-encapsulated carbon-coated particles. This strategy also provides a more stable cycling behavior for a Li—S cell as compared with a cell without such a discrete protective layer.

Example 17: Graphene/Sulfur Particles Encapsulated by a Sulfonated Elastomer Composite

(115) Tensile testing was also conducted on the sulfonated SBS elastomer films (without hybrid cathode particles). This series of elastomers can be elastically stretched up to approximately 230% (having some lithium salt dispersed therein).

(116) Shown in FIG. 6 are the cycling behaviors of 2 Li—S cells; one cell has a cathode containing particulates of sulfonated SBS-encapsulated sulfur-graphene composite balls and the other cell has a cathode containing particulates of un-protected sulfur-graphene composite balls. The sulfonated elastomer composite has imparted cycle stability to the Li—S cell in a most dramatic manner.

Example 18: Sulfur-Impregnated Activated MCMB Particles Encapsulated by a Sulfonated PB Elastomer Composite

(117) FIG. 7 shows the cycling behavior of two room-temperature Na—S cell: one cell has a cathode containing particulates of sulfonated SIBS/RGO composite-encapsulated sulfur-MCMB (activated) composite particles and the other cell has a cathode containing particulates of un-protected sulfur-MCMB (activated) composite particles. Again, the sulfonated elastomer composite has significantly improved the cycle stability to the Na—S cell.

(118) The above cycling stability data have clearly demonstrated that the shuttling effect commonly associated with Li—S or Na—S cells has been significantly reduced or essentially eliminated by the presently invented rotaxane-based sulfonated elastomer composite encapsulation approach.

Example 19: Effect of Lithium Ion-Conducting Additive in a Sulfonated Elastomer Composite

(119) A wide variety of lithium ion-conducting additives were added to several different sulfonated elastomers to prepare encapsulation shell materials for protecting core particles of S cathode active materials. We have discovered that these composite materials are suitable encapsulation shell materials provided that their lithium ion conductivity at room temperature is no less than 10.sup.−6 S/cm. With these materials, lithium ions appear to be capable of readily diffusing in and out of the encapsulation shell having a thickness no greater than 1 μm. For thicker shells (e.g. 10 μm), a lithium ion conductivity at room temperature no less than 10.sup.−4 S/cm would be required.

(120) TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Lithium ion conductivity of various sulfonated elastomer composite compositions as a shell material for protecting anode active material particles. Graphene-sulfonated elastomer (1-2 μm thick); Sample Lithium-conducting 5% graphene unless No. additive otherwise noted Li-ion conductivity (S/cm) E-1s Li.sub.2CO.sub.3 + (CH.sub.2OCO.sub.2Li).sub.2 70-99% polyurethane, 4.8 × 10.sup.−6 to 4.9 × 10.sup.−3 S/cm 2% RGO E-2s Li.sub.2CO.sub.3 + (CH.sub.2OCO.sub.2Li).sub.2 65-99% polyisoprene, 2.3 × 10.sup.−5 to 7.8 × 10.sup.−4 S/cm 8% pristine graphene E-3s Li.sub.2CO.sub.3 + (CH.sub.2OCO.sub.2Li).sub.2 65-80% SBR, 15% RGO 8.8 × 10.sup.−6 to 8.9 × 10.sup.−4 S/cm D-4s Li.sub.2CO.sub.3 + (CH.sub.2OCO.sub.2Li).sub.2 70-99% urethane-urea, 2.4 × 10.sup.−6 to 7.3 × 10.sup.−4 S/cm 12% nitrogenated graphene D-5s Li.sub.2CO.sub.3 + (CH.sub.2OCO.sub.2Li).sub.2 75-99% polybutadiene 2.4 × 10.sup.−5 to 7.9 × 10.sup.−3 S/cm B1s LiF + LiOH + Li.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4 80-99% chloroprene 2.2 × 10.sup.−6 to 6.4 × 10.sup.−4 S/cm rubber B2s LiF + HCOLi 80-99% EPDM 5.7 × 10.sup.−6 to 4.8 × 10.sup.−3 S/cm B3s LiOH 70-99% polyurethane 4.5 × 10.sup.−5 to 5.3 × 10.sup.−3 S/cm B4s Li.sub.2CO.sub.3 70-99% polyurethane 6.3 × 10.sup.−5 to 5.8 × 10.sup.−3 S/cm B5s Li.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4 70-99% polyurethane 1.6 × 10.sup.−5 to 2.7 × 10.sup.−3 S/cm B6s Li.sub.2CO.sub.3 + LiOH 70-99% polyurethane 3.6 × 10.sup.−5 to 5.9 × 10.sup.−3 S/cm C1s LiClO.sub.4 70-99% urethane-urea 5.3 × 10.sup.−5 to 4.6 × 10.sup.−3 S/cm C2s LiPF.sub.6 70-99% urethane-urea 5.5 × 10.sup.−5 to 1.8 × 10.sup.−3 S/cm C3s LiBF.sub.4 70-99% urethane-urea 3.4 × 10.sup.−5 to 4.8 × 10.sup.−4 S/cm C4s LiBOB + LiNO.sub.3 70-99% urethane-urea 8.2 × 10.sup.−6 to 3.2 × 10.sup.−4 S/cm S1s Sulfonated polyaniline 85-99% SBR 9.3 × 10.sup.−6 to 9.4 × 10.sup.−4 S/cm S2s Sulfonated SBR 85-99% SBR 8.6 × 10.sup.−6 to 6.5 × 10.sup.−4 S/cm S3s Sulfonated PVDF 80-99% chlorosulfonated 5.4 × 10.sup.−6 to 5.8 × 10.sup.−4 S/cm polyethylene (CS-PE) S4s Polyethylene oxide 80-99% CS-PE 6.6 × 10.sup.−6 to 4.7 × 10.sup.−4 S/cm

Example 20: Cycle Stability of Various Rechargeable Lithium Battery Cells

(121) FIG. 8 and FIG. 9 indicate that the presence of a sulfonated elastomer composite embracing a sulfur-based cathode does not compromise the energy density of an alkali metal-sulfur cell even though this composite shell is normally less electron-conducting than a carbon coating and less ion-conducting than a liquid electrolyte. Quite unexpectedly, the energy density of the cell is actually improved, defying the expectations of materials scientists.

(122) In lithium battery industry, it is a common practice to define the cycle life of a battery as the number of charge-discharge cycles that the battery suffers 20% decay in capacity based on the initial capacity measured after the required electrochemical formation. Summarized in Table 2 below are the cycle life data of a broad array of batteries featuring presently invented sulfonated elastomer composite-encapsulated sulfur cathode particles vs. other types of cathode active materials.

(123) TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 Cycle life data of various lithium-sulfur batteries. Type of sulfonated Initial Cycle life Sample elastomer + 2% capacity (No. of ID graphene or CNT Type & % of active material (mAh/g) cycles) CNF-1 Sulfonated PB 80% by wt. S + 7% CNF + 3% 1,265 1,550 encapsulation rotaxane + 5% binder + 5% CB CNF-2 Carbon encapsulation 80% by wt. S + 7% CNF + 3% 1,280 165 carbon + 5% binder + 5% CB AC-1 No encapsulation 70% S + 15% AC + 8% binder + 1,258 155 7% CB AC-2 SBS (75%) + PEO 70% S + 15% AC + 3% polymer 1,259 1,335 (25%) mixture + 5% binder + 7% CB Gn-3 PU encapsulation 90% S (coated on graphene 1454 2,477 sheets) Gn-4 Carbon encapsulation 90% S (coated on graphene 1453 188 sheets) CB-1 No encapsulation 70% S + 22% CB + 8% binder 1020 47 CB-2 SIBS encapsulation 70% S + 20% CB + 4% PEO + 1035 1315 6% binder
The following observations can be made from the data of Table 2 and FIG. 5-FIG. 9: 1) The presently invented conductive sulfonated elastomer composite encapsulation approach enables the Li—S, Na—S, and K—S batteries to deliver high cycling stability or long cycle life. 2) The invented approach also leads to alkali metal-sulfur batteries having exceptional energy densities and power densities. A cell-level energy density as high as 645 Wh/kg has been achieved with Li—S cells featuring a cathode active material encapsulated by a sulfonated elastomer composite. 3) Similar advantageous features are also observed with Na—S cells and K—S cells. This is evidenced by FIG. 9, which shows the Ragone plots (cell power density vs. cell energy density) of 4 alkali metal-sulfur cells:

(124) In summary, the present invention provides an innovative, versatile, and surprisingly effective platform materials technology that enables the design and manufacture of superior alkali metal-sulfur rechargeable batteries. The alkali metal-sulfur cell featuring a cathode layer containing particulates of sulfur/conducting material hybrid particles encapsulated by a sulfonated elastomer composite exhibits a high cathode active material utilization rate, high specific capacity, high specific energy, high power density, little or no shuttling effect, and long cycle life. When a nanostructured carbon filament web is implemented at the anode to support a lithium film (e.g. foil), the lithium dendrite issue is also suppressed or eliminated.