CATHODE FOR METAL-AIR CURRENT SOURCES METAL-AIR CURRENT SOURCES CONTAINING THE SAME

Abstract

The invention relates to electrochemical current sources, more particularly to metal-air current sources, and even more particularly to lithium-air current sources and their electrodes. A cathode comprises a base made of a porous electrically conducting material that is permeable to molecular oxygen, the working surface of which has a copolymer applied thereto, which is produced by the copolymerization of a monomeric transition metal coordination complex having a Schiff base and a thiophene group monomer. The monomeric transition metal coordination complex having a Schiff base can be, for example, a compound of the [M(R,R-Salen)], [M(R,R-Saltmen)] or [M(R,R-Salphen)] type, and the thiophene group monomer can be a compound selected from a thiophene group consisting of 3-alkylthiophenes, 3,4-dialkylthiophenes, 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene or combinations thereof. A current source comprises the described cathode and an anode made from an active metal, in particular lithium, wherein the cathode and the anode are separated by an electrolyte containing ions of the metal from which the anode is made. It has been established that in this system, the copolymer exhibits the properties of an effective catalyst. The technical result is an increase in the specific energy, specific power and number of charge and discharge cycles of a metal-air current source.

Claims

1. Cathode for metal-air current sources, comprising a base made of a porous electrically conductive material that is permeable for molecular oxygen, on whose working surface there is applied a copolymer, obtained by polymerization of a monomer complex of a complex compound of a transition metal with a Schiff base and a monomer from the thiophene group.

2. Cathode according to claim 1, in which, as the material for the base, a porous carbon material with a developed surface is used.

3. Cathode according to claim 1, in which, in order to obtain the copolymer, as a monomer of a complex compound of a transition metal with a Schiff base, a compound of the form [M(R, R'Salen)] is used, having the structure ##STR00004## wherein M is the transition metal, selected from the group nickel, palladium, platinum, cobalt, copper, manganese; Salen is the residue of bis(salicylaldehyde)ethylenediamine in the Schiff base; R is the substituent in the Schiff base, selected from the group H, CHO—, C.sub.2H.sub.5O—, HO— or —CH.sub.3; R′ is the substituent in the Schiff base, selected from the group H or any of the halogens.

4. Cathode according to claim 1, in which, in order to obtain the copolymer, as a monomer complex compound of a transition metal with a Schiff base, a compound of the form [M(R, R'Saltmen)] may be used that has the structure ##STR00005## wherein M is the transition metal, selected from the group nickel, palladium, platinum, cobalt, copper, manganese; Saltmen is the residue of bis(salicylaldehyde)tetramethylethylenediamine in the Schiff base; R is the substituent in the Schiff base, selected from the group H, CHO—, C.sub.2H.sub.5O—, HO— or —CH.sub.3; R′ is the substituent in the Schiff base, selected from the group H or any of the halogens.

5. Cathode according to claim 1, in which, in order to obtain the copolymer, as a monomer complex compound of a transition metal with a Schiff base, a compound of the form [M(R, R'Salphen)] is used that has the structure ##STR00006## wherein M is the transition metal, selected from the group nickel, palladium, platinum, cobalt, copper, manganese; Salphen is the residue of bis(salicylaldehyde)-o-phenylenediamine in the Schiff base; R is the substituent in the Schiff base, selected from the group H, CHO—, C.sub.2H.sub.5O—, HO or —CH.sub.3; R′ is the substituent in the Schiff base, selected from the group H or any of the halogens.

6. Cathode according to claim 1, in which, in order to obtain the copolymer, as a monomer from the thiophene group, a compound, selected from the group thiophene, 3-alkylthiophen, 3,4-dialkylthiophene, 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene or a combination thereof.

7. Claim according to claim 1, in which the monomer complex compound of a transition metal with a Schiff base and a monomer from the thiophene group used to obtain the indicated copolymer are taken in a molar ratio from approximately 1.05 to approximately 1:10.

8. Cathode according to claim 7, in which the monomer complex compound of a transition metal with a Schiff base and the monomer from the thiophene group are taken in a molar ratio of approximately 1:2.

9. Metal-air current source comprising a cathode, designed according to claim 1, and an anode, produced from a material, comprising at least one chemically active metal, while the anode and the cathode are separated by an electrolyte containing ions of the indicated chemically active metal that enters into the composition of the anode.

10. Current source according to claim 9, in which, as a material from which the anode is made, an alkali metal, an alkali earth metal or a transition metal is used.

11. Current source according to claim 10, in which, as the alkali metal indicated, lithium is used.

12. Current source according to claim 11, in which, as an electrolyte, a solution of lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate in a dimethyl ether of tetraethylene glycol is used, with the molar ratio of these components ranging from approximately 1:2 to approximately 1:8.

13. Current source according to claim 12, in which the ratio of the indicated components of the electrolyte is 1:4.

14. Current source according to claim 9, in which, as material from which the anode is made, an alloy is used, comprising one or more chemically active metals.

15. Current source according to claim 14, in which, as the indicated alloy, a lithium-silicon alloy, lithium-aluminum alloy, a lithium-tin alloy or a lead-sodium alloy is used.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0046] On FIG. 1 and FIG. 2, as an example of an embodiment of the present invention, there is diagrammatically shown the construction of a lithium-air current source, comprising a lithium anode and a cathode in the form of a carbon base with a copolymer applied on it in accordance with the present invention, illustrating the discharge process of such a current source. At the same time, FIG. 1 shows the state of the current source at the beginning of the discharge process, while FIG. 2 shows this at the end of the discharge process.

[0047] FIG. 3 provides a diagrammatic representation of a fragment [Co(Schiff)] entering into the composition of the copolymer, while FIG. 3 represents its graphic formula, while FIG. 3(b) provides a diagrammatic representation of the fragment [Co(Schiff)] corresponding to its spatial arrangement.

[0048] FIG. 4 provides a diagrammatic representation of the spatial stack structure that is formed in the copolymer from the fragments [M(Schiff)], particularly [Co(Schiff)].

[0049] FIG. 5 diagrammatically shows the interaction of molecular oxygen with the fragments [Co(Schiff)] of the copolymers according to the present invention.

[0050] FIG. 6 illustrates the interaction of the lithium ions with the fragments [Co(Schiff)] of the copolymer, while FIG. 6(a) represents the graphic formula of a fragment [Co(Schiff)] of the copolymer interacting with the lithium ions, while FIG. 6(b) illustrates such an interaction with the corresponding spatial arrangement of the lithium ions and the indicated fragment of the copolymer interacting among themselves.

[0051] FIG. 7 represents the results of the experiment to determine the correlation of the concentrations of the monomer complex compound of the transition metal with a Schiff base and a monomer from the group of thiophenes used to obtain the copolymer according to the present invention.

[0052] FIG. 8 represents the curves of the charging and the discharge of an electrode with a copolymer coating according to the invention and a control electrode.

[0053] FIG. 9 represents the curves of the charging and the discharge of a lithium-air current sources with a cathode according to the invention and a control example of a current source.

EMBODIMENT OF THE INVENTION

[0054] A possibility for an embodiment of the present invention is shown below in the example of a lithium-air current source (cf. FIG. 1 and FIG. 2), comprising lithium anode 1 and cathode, comprising base 3 made of a porous electrically conductive material that is permeable to molecular oxygen with a coating made of copolymer 4 applied to it, obtained by the copolymerization of a monomer complex compound of cobalt with a Schiff form base [Co(Schiff)] and a monomer from the thiophene group, in this case 2,3-ethylendioxythiophene (EDOT). Mechanically, anode 1 and cathode 2 are divided by separator 5, but electrochemically by electrolyte 6 containing lithium ions 7. Copolymer 4 may be applied on the surface of base 3 of cathode 2 by electrochemical polymerization from a solution of a mixture of monomer [Co(Schiff)] and monomer EDOT. As a material for base 3, use may be made of a material containing carbon of the brand Carbon Super • produced by the company TIMCAL. As shown on FIG. 1 and FIG. 2, in the structure of copolymer 4, fragments of complex [Co(Schiff)], including metallic center 8 and ligand environment (ligand) 9 and EDOT 10 fragments can be separated.

[0055] Studies that have been conducted, including by one of the authors of the present invention, have shown that the polymer complexes of the compound of a transition metal with a Schiff base have a specific stack structure with fragments of the polymer connected with one another by means of donor-acceptor interaction between the metallic center of one fragment of the polymer and the ligand of another fragment of the polymer [I. E. Popeko, V. V. Vasiliev, A. M. Timonov, G. A. Shagisultanova. “Electrochemical Behavior of Palladium (III) with Schiff's Bases, Synthesis of Mixed-Valent Pd(II)-Pd(IV) Complexes”//Russian J. Inorg. Chem. 1990, V. 35, N. 4, p. 933]. FIG. 3 provides a diagrammatic representation of a fragment [Co(Schiff)] entering into the composition of copolymer 4, including metallic center 8 and ligand environment (ligand) 9. In this example, metallic center 8 is cobalt (Co), while ligand 9 is Salen. FIG. 4 gives a diagrammatic representation of the spatial stack structure that is formed in copolymer 4 from the fragments [Co(Salen)] and in which these fragments are arranged in parallel, following one another, so that, in order for metallic center 8 to be arranged immediately above and below ligands 9 of the adjacent fragments, which are essential for previously mentioned alignment of the stack structure, thanks to the donor-acceptor interaction.

[0056] The possibility for achieving the indicated result, with respect to the energy parameters of the current source under consideration is connected to the properties of the above-mentioned copolymer discovered by the authors of the present invention.

[0057] Fragments of [Co(Schiff)] form have a strong chemical affinity to molecular oxygen; in an air environment, such structures are capable of interacting with molecular oxygen by forming bridges of a “metal-oxygen-metal” type between metallic centers [EI-Ichiro Ochiai. “Electronic structure and oxygenation of bis(salicylaldehyde)ethylenediminicobalt(II)”//J. Inorg. Nucl. Chem. 1973, V. 35, p. 1727]. FIG. 5 shows such an interaction of molecular oxygen with metallic centers 8 of fragments [Co(Schiff)] of copolymer 4. In particular, for the polymer poly-[Co(Schiff)], it has been shown that the concentration of oxygen in it is approximately 500 times higher than in air, while such oxygen 12 connected with the polymer has a bond that is longer—and thereby weakened—between the oxygen atoms than a molecule of free molecular oxygen. This means that the bonded oxygen has transitioned to more active state because of the action of the fragment [Co(Schiff)] that has presented itself as a catalyst in such a system.

[0058] Also fragments of a monomer from the thiophene group entering into the composition of the copolymer promote an increase in the electrical conductivity of the copolymer, which increases the velocity of the cathode reactions and raises the specific power of the current source in which this cathode is used. Besides this, the high electrical conductivity of the copolymer makes it possible to increase its thickness while preserving the catalytic activity in the whole layer of the copolymer, which, taken together, also provides for the high specific energy of the current source.

[0059] In studying cathodes of a lithium-air current source in relation to the present invention, it has been established that the use—in the composition of a cathode—of a coating made of a copolymer obtained by copolymerization of a monomer complex compound [M(Schiff)] and a monomer from the thiophene group, other things being equal, leads to an increase in the discharge current of the cathode as compared to an analogous electrode, in which a coating made of a polymer poly-[M(Schiff)] is used.

[0060] To determine the correlation of the monomer complex compound [M(Schiff)] and the monomer from the thiophene group in the mixture that is used to obtain the copolymer, wherein the indicated result of the invention is achieved, including an optimal value for the indicated correlation, the following experiment was done, including the manufacture and testing of electrodes with a differing polymer coating with respect to its composition.

[0061] To a glass-graphite electrode (surface area 0.07 cm.sup.2) there was applied a coating of acetonitrile solvents containing a monomer complex compound [M(Schiff)], in particular a complex [Co(CH.sub.3O-Salen)] and a compound from the thiophene group—EDOT.

[0062] Here, the value of the concentration of the compound [Co(CH.sub.3O-Salen)] was set as constant and equal to 1 mmol/L, while the value of the concentration of EDOT for different examples of electrodes was varied from zero to 10 mmol/L. In addition, the solution included the background electrolyte LiBF.sub.4 in a concentration of 0.1 mol/L. The application of the copolymer coating was carried using the method of electrochemical polymerization with cyclical variation of the potential of the electrode within a range from 0 V to +1.5 V (in relation to a silver-silver chloride electrode) with a velocity of 50 mV/sec (2 cycles were carried out). After this, the electrode was washed in acetonitrile and was dried for 2 minutes at room temperature.

[0063] An electrode obtained in this manner was placed into a three-electrode airtight electrochemical cell, filled with 0.1 mol/L of LiBF.sub.4 in acetonitrile. As an auxiliary electrode a glass-graphite plate measuring 1.5×1.0 cm was used; the comparison electrode was an Ag.sup.+/Ag electrode filled with 5×10.sup.−3 mol/L of a solution of AgNO.sub.3 in acetonitrile (a standard electrode of the brand MF-2062 produced by the company Bioanalytical Systems, BASi). The electrode studied was subjected to a charge in voltammeter mode while shifting the potential from 0 V to +1.3 V with respect to the silver chloride electrode with a velocity of 50 mV/sec. After that, the electrode was subjected to a discharge in voltammeter mode while shifting the potential from +1.3 V to −0.7 V with respect to the silver chloride electrode at a velocity of 50 mV/sec, fixing the discharge current at a potential value of 0.3 V.

[0064] The results of the experiments are shown in FIG. 7, where, on the x axis, there are shown the values of the K correlations of the molar concentrations of EDOT and the [Co(CH.sub.3O-Salen)] compound, while, on the y axis, there are the values of the discharge current I that were indicated, normalized to the discharge current of the electrode with the coating that had been obtained at zero concentration of EDOT−I(EDOT=0). The experimental values and the approximating curve are shown. It can be seen that even a small addition of EDOT to [Co(CH.sub.3O-Salen)] in the mixture that is used to obtain the copolymer leads to an increase in the discharge current of the electrode. Apparently, this is related to the increase in the electron conductivity of the copolymer and an improvement in charge transport conditions in it. Furthermore, the addition of EDOT fragments that are good conductors of a charge makes a larger number of the fragments [Co(Schiff)] available for the electrochemical reaction on the electrode. In other words, for all practical purposes, it increases the number of active metallic centers in the copolymer. From this standpoint, the greatest efficiency is shown by the copolymer that is obtained from the solution with a concentration ratio of [Co(CH.sub.3O-Salen)] and EDOT of 1:2 (the maximum on the curve shown in FIG. 7 corresponds to this).

[0065] It can be seen that, in range from approximately 1:0.5 to approximately 1:10 for the values of the relationship of the concentrations of [Co(CH.sub.3O-Salen)] and EDOT, there is observed a high operational efficiency of the electrode. When the EDOT content is further increased, there is observed a noticeable decrease in the discharge currents in the electrode under consideration, which can probably be related to the physical blockage of the catalytic cobalt centers by fragments of thiophene.

[0066] We will consider the charge and discharge processes of a current source in relation to the present invention.

[0067] Process of Discharging

[0068] In the process of discharge of a lithium-air current source (cf. FIG. 1), atmospheric oxygen 11 penetrates through base 3 of cathode 2 and connects with fragments of the [Co(Schiff)] complex of copolymer 4, passing over into a more active state (position 12 on FIG. 1). Lithium anode 1 is oxidized with the formation of lithium ions 7, which begin to move in the direction of cathode 2. Furthermore, lithium ions 7 are attracted to fragments of the [Co(Schiff)] complex of copolymer 4 of cathode 2 by the oxygen atoms of ligand 9, as illustrated in FIG. 6. Here, FIG. 6(a) presents the graphic formula of the fragment of the [Co(Schiff)] complex of copolymer 4, interacting with the lithium ions, while FIG. 6(b) provides an illustration of such an interaction, in which lithium ions 7 are attracted to the negatively charged oxygen atoms of ligand 9 of the [Co(Schiff)] fragment of copolymer 4. The excess of electrons in copolymer 4 leads to the reconstitution of bound oxygen 12. The products of the reconstitution are stabilized by lithium ions 7 in the form of a nanocrystal oxide or peroxide of lithium 13 (cf. FIG. 2).

[0069] The described reaction that reconstitutes the oxygen proceeds very rapidly, inasmuch as the reconstituted oxygen and the lithium ions are concentrated in one and the same reaction zone of the [Co(Schiff)] fragment of the copolymer at a close distance from one another, which facilitates the chemical interaction between the lithium and the oxygen, leading to the formation of an oxide or peroxide of lithium. The catalysts used for the reconstitution, as a rule, adsorb and concentrate only one reagent, usually the oxygen. The [Co(Schiff)] fragments of the copolymer that exhibit catalytic properties “attract” both the lithium ions and the oxygen. The process of discharge ends after whole surface of the cathode is coated with a thin coat of the products of the discharge.

[0070] Process of Charge

[0071] In the process of charging a current source, designed in accordance with the present invention, as a result of applying a positive electrical charge to cathode 2 with respect to anode 1, metallic centers 8 of the [Co(Schiff)] fragments of polymer 4 are oxidized and pass over into an oxidized state with a degree of oxidation of +3.

[0072] The metallic centers—in this case, cobalt atoms—in such an oxidized condition are powerful oxidizing agents capable of oxidizing an oxide or peroxide of lithium back into molecular oxygen and lithium ions. The molecular oxygen leaves the reaction zone and escapes into the surrounding atmosphere through the porous carbon material of base 3 of cathode 2, while lithium ions 7 diffuse back toward lithium anode 1, where they are reconstituted into metallic lithium. Copolymer 4, in this case, acts as an electrochemical catalyst, remaining in an oxidized state, thanks to the positive potential that has been applied to cathode 2 from an outside power source.

[0073] In the process of discharge that has been described, the coating of the cathode remains stable in the whole range of the operational potentials; no irreversible changes in the structure of the copolymer take place. As a result of the charging of the lithium-air current source under consideration, the oxide (peroxide) of lithium actually turns back into oxygen and lithium ions, while the surface of the cathode is freed from these products that were formed in the process of the discharge of the current source. All of this together makes it possible to substantially increase the number of charge-discharge of the current source as compared to those known.

Example 1. Charge-Discharge Process of an Electrode with a Copolymer Coating

[0074] Production of an electrode. As a base for the electrode, there was selected a glass-graphite disk with a diameter of 22 mm (surface area 0.07 cm.sup.2) produced by the company BASi (MF 2012). To the working surface of the electrode, using the method of electrochemical polymerization, there was applied copolymer from an acetonitrile solution containing 1×10.sup.3 mol/L of a monomer of complex compound of cobalt with Schiff base [Co(CH.sub.3O-Salen)], 2×10.sup.3 mol/L of EDOT and 0.1 mol/L of background electrolyte tetraflouroborate tetraethylammonium (C.sub.2H.sub.5).sub.4NBF.sub.4. The polymerization was carried out in an airtight case filled with argon with a total concentration of water and oxygen of less than 10%. The process comprised two cycles of changing the potential of the electrode in a range from 0 V to +1.5 V with respect to the silver-silver chloride electrode with a velocity of 400 mV/sec. After the end of the process of polymerization, the electrode was washed with acetone nitrile and subjected to drying for 2 minutes at room temperature.

[0075] Testing of the electrode. The electrode was placed in a three-electrode airtight electrochemical cell, filled with 0.1 mol/L of a solution of LiBF.sub.4 in acetone nitrile saturated with oxygen by preliminary blowing of said solution for 15 min.

[0076] As an auxiliary electrode, a glass-graphite rectangle plate measuring 1.5×10 cm was used; the comparison electrode was an Ag+/Ag electrode, filled with 5×10.3 mol/L of a AgNO.sub.3 solution in acetone nitrile (a standard electrode of the brand MF-2062 produced by the company BASi).

[0077] The electrode was subjected to discharge and subsequent charging at a constant current of 13 μA. Analogous testing was conducted on similar such electrode without the layer of copolymer applied to its surface, i.e. a control electrode. The charge-discharge curves of the described electrodes are shown in FIG. 8, where the x axis shows the charge/discharge time, while the y axis shows the potential value on the electrode. It can be seen that the discharge capacity (which is reflected by the discharge time) of the electrode coated with the polymer significantly exceeds the potential value for the control electrode. Here, the potential of the electrode with the copolymer at the time of discharge is significantly higher, but at the time of charging—it is significantly lower than corresponding potential values for the control electrode. This reflects the fact that the copolymer exhibits catalytic activity with respect to the processes of the charging and the discharge of the electrode. In turn, this provides for improved characteristics of the specific energy and specific power of the current source, in which this electrode will be used.

[0078] For convenience, in the experiment, as the base of the electrode, there was used glass-graphite, which is not a porous material that is permeable for oxygen. However, inasmuch as the processes of charging and discharge occurring in the polymer were studied, while the supply of oxygen into the reaction zone was carried out by means of prior saturation of the electrolyte with oxygen, the results of the studies adequately reflect the process occurring on the cathode in accordance with the present invention.

Example 2. Charging and Discharge of a Lithium-Air Current Source

[0079] Production of the electrodes and current source. In the production of the cathode, carbon material (of the brand Super P produced by the company TIMCAL) 80% by mass and a binding agent—polyvinylidene fluoride (of the brand HSV 900 produced by the company Arkema)—20% by mass were mixed in a solvent N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (produced by the company Sigma-Aldrich). The mass obtained was uniformly applied on to Toray-30 gas-permeable carbon paper (Toray Carbon Paper TGP-H-030) and the preparation was subjected to drying for 12 hours at a temperature 120° C. to remove the residues of the solvent. The density of the application of carbon on the obtained base of the electrode was (0.9±0.1) mg/cm.sup.2. Then, onto the base of the cathode that was obtained in this way, there was applied a coating made of a copolymer.

[0080] The process of application was carried in an airtight case filed with argon and with a total concentration of water and oxygen of less than 10.sup.−5%. The process of polymerization was carried out in an acetone nitrile solution containing 1.0 mmol/L of the monomer [Co(CH.sub.3O-Salen)] and 2.0 mmol/L of the monomer EDOT, and also a background electrolyte −0.1 mmol/L of C.sub.2H.sub.5).sub.4NBF.sub.4, at a potential of +1.5 V with respect to the silver-silver chloride electrode for 2 sec.

[0081] The anode was made of lithium foil with a thickness of 500 microns. The current source was collected in a steel case, type R2032 (coin-type). In the lid of the case, in contact with the cathode, which was a current contact jaw, there 21 openings with a diameter of 1 mm to provide for the access of oxygen to the cathode. The cathode and the anode were divided by a porous separator Celgard 2500 (produced by the company Celgard, LLC) with a thickness of 25 mm. As a lithium-containing electrolyte, 1 mol/L of a solution of lithium trifluoromethanesulfate LiFCF.sub.3SO.sub.3 (produced by the company Aldrich) was used in tetraethylene glycol dimethyl ether (TEGDME) produced by the company Acros.

[0082] Also, a control current source was prepared, differing from the one described—the experimental one—filled according to the present invention, only in that its cathode did not have the indicated copolymer coating.

[0083] Both current sources (experimental and control) were tested under identical charge-discharge conditions on a CT-3008W unit produced by the company NEWARE (KHP). The charge was produced at a constant current of 50 μA and the discharge at a constant current of 500 μA. In the process of testing, both current sources were in an oxygen atmosphere (at a pressure of 1 atm) at room temperature.

[0084] FIG. 9 shows the experimental charging and discharge curves that were obtained for the control and the experimental current source. On the x axis, there is shown the specific capacity value (calculated on 1 g carbon), while on the y axis—the voltage value U of the current source. It can be seen that, in a lithium-air current source, the use of a cathode with copolymer coating according to the present invention provides a greater discharge voltage, and consequently, greater energy release upon discharge, but also less voltage, essential for the charging.

[0085] Despite the fact that, in the examples, examples are cited that were obtained while using, in the current source, complexes of cobalt with a Schiff base and EDOT, analogous results are shown with the use of other copolymers obtained from a mixture of metal complexes with a Schiff base, for examples, complexes of nickel, manganese and other transition metals, and monomers of the group of thiophenes.

[0086] Thus, the results of the experiments confirm that the use, in metal-air current sources, of a cathode, whose working surface has a coating made of a copolymer obtained by copolymerization of a monomer complex of a compound of a transition metal with a Schiff base and a monomer from the thiophene group leads to high energy characteristics for such current sources as compared to analogous current sources that do not contain the indicated polymer in the composition of the cathode. This is achieved thanks to the fact that the polymers indicated, as was discovered by the inventors, in such a system, act as catalysts of cathode reactions. Here, the high electrical conductivity of the copolymer makes it possible to increase its thickness while preserving the catalytic activity in the entire layer of the copolymer, which, taken together, provides for both the high specific power and the high specific energy of the current source. The reversibility of the reactions of oxidation and reconstitution on the cathode provides for a long useful life of the current source.