POROUS CATHODES FOR SECONDARY BATTERIES

Abstract

The present disclosure provides porous composites for manufacture of cathodes for secondary sulfur batteries and batteries containing such cathodes.

Claims

1. A secondary sulfur battery comprising: a cathode comprising a porous cathode composite, the composite containing between about 30 and about 70 weight percent electroactive sulfur; and an electrolyte in contact with the porous cathode composition; characterized in that: the battery has a ratio of electrolyte to electroactive sulfur equal to or less than about 3.5 microliters of electrolyte per milligram of electroactive sulfur; the cathode comprises between about 6 milligrams and about 10 milligrams of porous cathode composite per square centimeter; the cathode composite has a thickness between about 75 and about 170 μm; and the porous cathode composite has a porosity value (P %) greater than about 40, wherein P % is determined by the formula:
P%=(1−ρ.sub.bulk/ρ.sub.theortical).Math.100% where ρ.sub.bulk represents mass of the cathode composite divided by its geometric volume (thickness×area), and ρ.sub.theoretical represents a weighted sum of the theoretical (or atomic) densities of each component in the cathode composite.

2. (canceled)

3. The secondary sulfur battery of claim 1, characterized in that it has a value P % of greater than about 45.

4. The secondary sulfur battery of claim 3, characterized in that it has a value P % greater than about 50.

5. (canceled)

6. The secondary sulfur battery of claim 1, characterized in that it has a value ρ.sub.bulk between about 0.45 and about 0.85 g/cm.sup.3.

7. (canceled)

8. The secondary sulfur battery of claim 1, characterized in that it has a value ρ.sub.theoretical between about 1.25 and about 1.75 g/cm.sup.3.

9. (canceled)

10. The secondary sulfur battery of claim 1, characterized in that it has a sulfur mass fraction (% Swt) value between about 30 and about 50 or between about 40 and about 60.

11-12. (canceled)

13. The secondary sulfur battery of claim 1, characterized in that it has an areal sulfur loading (S.sub.area) between about 1.85 and about 4.15 mg/cm.sup.2.

14-15. (canceled)

16. The secondary sulfur battery of claim 1, further characterized in that the porous cathode composite has a porosity of at least about 60 volume percent.

17. The secondary sulfur battery of claim 16, wherein the cathode composite has a porosity of at least about 65 volume percent.

18. The secondary sulfur battery of claim 16, wherein the porous cathode composite has a porosity of at least about 81 volume percent.

19. The secondary sulfur battery of claim 1, wherein the porous cathode composite has a thickness between about 80 and about 150 μm.

20. The secondary sulfur battery of claim 1, wherein: the porous composite has a porosity between about 50% and about 60%; the porous cathode composite has a thickness between about 85 μm and about 115 μm; the porous cathode composite has a % Swt between about 40 and about 60; and the solid material composing the porous cathode composite has a ρ.sub.theoretical between about 1.38 and about 1.60 g/cm.sup.3.

21-23. (canceled)

24. The secondary sulfur battery of claim 20, wherein the porous cathode composite has a % Swt of about 50, is composed of a solid having a ρ.sub.theoretical between about 1.45 and about 1.50 g/cm.sup.3, and has a thickness between about 95 and about 110 μm.

25. The secondary sulfur battery of claim 20, wherein the porous cathode composite has a % Swt of about 60, is composed of a solid having a ρ.sub.theoretical between about 1.55 and about 1.60 g/cm.sup.3, and has a thickness between about 100 and about 110 μm.

26-27. (canceled)

28. The secondary sulfur battery of claim 1, wherein: at least a fraction of the pores of the porous cathode composite contain electrolyte, and the ratio of electrolyte contained in the pores to electroactive sulfur in the cathode composite between about 1.8 and about 3.5 μL/mg S.

29. The secondary sulfur battery of claim 28, wherein the ratio of contained electrolyte to electroactive sulfur is between about 1.8 and about 2.5 μL/mg S.

30-33. (canceled)

34. The secondary sulfur battery of claim 1, wherein, at a current density of at least about 1 mA/cm.sup.2, the battery has a discharge capacity of at least about 1200 mAh per gram of electroactive sulfur for at least 100 charge-discharge cycles.

35. The secondary sulfur battery of claim 1, wherein the battery has a discharge capacity of at least about 1000 mAh per gram of electroactive sulfur after 100 or more charge charge/discharge cycles at a depth of charge of at least about 80%.

36-37. (canceled)

38. A secondary sulfur battery comprising: a porous cathode comprising a solid composite having a thickness of between about 75 μm and about 170 μm, composed of a solid having a theoretical density of less than about 1.6 g/cm.sup.3, and having an electroactive sulfur content of less than about 5 mg/cm.sup.2; an anode comprising lithium; and an electrolyte in contact with the porous cathode; characterized in that: the battery has an electrolyte-to-sulfur ratio equal to or less than about 5 microliters of electrolyte per milligram of electroactive sulfur; the cathode comprises between about 6 mg and about 10 mg of cathode composition per square centimeter; and the porous cathode composition has a porosity of at least about 60%.

39-44. (canceled)

45. A sulfur cathode for use in a secondary battery, the cathode comprising a porous composite material that: a) has a thickness of between about 100 μm and 170 μm, and b) is composed of a solid having a density less than about 1.6 g/cm.sup.3, wherein the cathode contains less than about 5 mg/cm.sup.2 electroactive sulfur.

46-54. (canceled)

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0024] In the drawings, like reference characters generally refer to the same parts throughout the different views. Also, the drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead generally being placed upon illustrating the principles of the disclosed compositions and methods and are not intended as limiting. For purposes of clarity, not every component may be labeled in every drawing. In the following description, various embodiments are described with reference to the following drawings, in which:

[0025] FIG. 1 is a pictorial representation of a cross section of an electrochemical cell according to certain embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0026] FIG. 2 is a pictorial representation of a cylindrical battery according to certain embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0027] FIG. 3 is a graphical representation of specific discharge capacity of porous composites as a function of porosity according to certain embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0028] FIG. 4 is graphical representation of porosity of porous composites as a function of active material loading according to certain embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0029] FIG. 5 is a graphical representation of discharge resistance of porous composites as a function of porosity according to certain embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0030] FIG. 6 is a graphical representation of thickness of porous composites as a function of porosity according to certain embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0031] FIG. 7 is a pictorial representation of a coin cell assembly according to one or more embodiments of the disclosure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0032] Generally, the present disclosure is directed to novel porous cathode materials for use in secondary sulfur batteries and related methods for fabricating and using such devices. In certain embodiments, a provided porous composite combines features of: 1) a thick cathode layer within a thickness range of between about 75 μm and about 170 μm; 2) a low cathode layer density within a specific tailored range further defined below; 3) a high porosity (for example, a porosity of about equal to or greater than about 50%); and 4) electroactive sulfur present at a modest content that is maintained between about 30 wt % to about 70 wt % sulfur relative to the total weight of solids in such a cathode composite. In certain embodiments, a porous composite described herein is used to prepare a cathode for use in secondary sulfur batteries. Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, it is possible that combination of a thick cathode layer and relatively low sulfur content in a porous cathode material for a secondary sulfur battery described herein produces improved electrochemical performance of said battery.

A. Porous Composites

[0033] Among other things, the present disclosure is directed to porous composites suitable for use as cathodes and for formulation of cathode compositions of secondary sulfur batteries. Provided porous composites combine specific values of composite density, porosity, thickness, and areal sulfur to construct cathode materials which, when used in secondary sulfur batteries, exhibit high gravimetric energy density, good rate capability, and long cycle life. For example, in certain embodiments, such composites have a unique combination of sulfur content, density, and porosity.

[0034] In certain embodiments, a porous composite of the present disclosure combines features of: 1) a thick cathode layer within a thickness range of between about 75 μm and about 170 μm; 2) a low cathode layer density within a specific tailored range further defined below; 3) a high porosity (for example, a porosity of about equal to or greater than about 50%); and 4) electroactive sulfur present at a modest content that is maintained between about 30 wt % and about 70 wt % sulfur relative to the total weight of solids in the cathode composite.

[0035] In certain embodiments, a porous composite of the present disclosure is defined in terms of its physical characteristics, for example, porosity, density, and sulfur-loading.

[0036] In some embodiments, porosity of a composite cathode film is defined as:

P%=(1−ρ.sub.bulk/ρ.sub.theortical).Math.100%

where ρ.sub.bulk is the mass of a cathode divided by its geometric volume (e.g. thickness×area), and ρ.sub.theoretical is the sum of the weighted theoretical (or atomic) densities of each component in a composite electrode.

[0037] Sulfur content, which is correlated to potential storage capacity of a cathode composite, can be quantified in terms of sulfur mass fraction (% Swt) and area specific sulfur loading (S.sub.area). In certain embodiments, sulfur mass fraction of a composite cathode film is sulfur mass in a composite divided by total composite mass. In some embodiments, area specific sulfur loading (S.sub.area) is calculated as a sulfur mass fraction multiplied by mass of a cathode film, divided by cathode surface area.

[0038] In certain embodiments, composites of the present disclosure have a value P % of greater than about 40. In certain embodiments, such composites have a value of P % greater than about 50, greater than about 55, greater than about 60, greater than about 65, greater than about 70, or greater than about 75. In certain embodiments, P % is between about 40 and about 70. In certain embodiments, P % is between about 50 and about 70. In certain embodiments, P % is between about 60 and about 80, between about 60 and about 70, between about 65 and about 75, or between about 70 and about 80.

[0039] In certain embodiments, provided composites are characterized in that they have a value ρ.sub.bulk between about 0.45 and about 0.85 g/cm.sup.3. In certain embodiments, the value of ρ.sub.bulk is between about 0.45 and about 0.65 g/cm.sup.3, between about 0.50 and about 0.70 g/cm.sup.3, between about 0.55 and about 0.75 g/cm.sup.3, between about 0.60 and about 0.80 g/cm.sup.3, or between about 0.65 and about 0.85 g/cm.sup.3.

[0040] In certain embodiments, provided composites are characterized in that the value of ρ.sub.theoretical is between about 1.25 and about 1.75 g/cm.sup.3. In certain embodiments, the value of ρ.sub.theoretical is between about 1.30 and about 1.60 g/cm.sup.3, between about 1.35 and about 1.65 g/cm.sup.3, between about 1.40 and about 1.60 g/cm.sup.3, between about 1.45 and about 1.65 g/cm.sup.3, or between about 1.38 and about 1.57 g/cm.sup.3.

[0041] In certain embodiments, provided composites are characterized in that they have a thickness between about 75 and about 170 μm. In certain embodiments, provided composites are characterized in that they have a thickness between about 80 and about 150 μm. In certain embodiments, such composites have a thickness between about 80 and about 100 μm, between about 85 and about 125 μm, between about 90 and about 110 μm, between about 100 and about 120 μm, between about 110 and about 130 μm, between about 120 and about 140 μm, or between about 125 and about 150 μm.

[0042] In certain embodiments, provided composites are characterized in that the value of % Swt is between about 30 and about 70. In certain embodiments, such composites are further characterized in that the value of % Swt is between about 30 and about 60. In certain embodiments, the value of % Swt is between about 30 and about 50, between about 40 and about 60, between about 50 and about 60, or between about 40 and about 50. In certain embodiments, the value of % Swt is about 30, about 35, about 40, about 45, about 50, about 55, or about 60.

[0043] In certain embodiments, provided composites are characterized in that the value of S.sub.area is between about 1.85 and about 4.15 mg/cm.sup.2. In certain embodiments, the value of S.sub.area is between about 1.85 and about 3.35 mg/cm.sup.2, between about 1.85 and about 2.85 mg/cm.sup.2, between about 2.50 and about 4.15 mg/cm.sup.2, or between about 2.80 and about 3.20 mg/cm.sup.2. In certain embodiments, the value of S.sub.area is about 1.90 mg/cm.sup.2, about 2.15 mg/cm.sup.2, about 2.35 mg/cm.sup.2, about 2.45 mg/cm.sup.2, about 2.50 mg/cm.sup.2, about 2.60 mg/cm.sup.2, about 2.75 mg/cm.sup.2, about 2.85 mg/cm.sup.2, about 3.05 mg/cm.sup.2, about 3.15 mg/cm.sup.2, about 3.20 mg/cm.sup.2, about 3.45 mg/cm.sup.2, about 3.50 mg/cm.sup.2, about 3.75 mg/cm.sup.2, about 3.80 mg/cm.sup.2, or about 4.10 mg/cm.sup.2.

[0044] In certain embodiments, provided composites are characterized in that the value of S.sub.area is between about 4 and about 10 mg/cm.sup.2. In certain embodiments, the value of S.sub.area is between about 4 and about 5 mg/cm.sup.2, between about 4.5 and about 6 mg/cm.sup.2, between about 5 and about 7.5 mg/cm.sup.2, or between about 6 and about 8 mg/cm.sup.2. In certain embodiments, the value of S.sub.area is about 5 mg/cm.sup.2, about 5.5 mg/cm.sup.2, about 6 mg/cm.sup.2, about 6.5 mg/cm.sup.2, about 7 mg/cm.sup.2, about 8 mg/cm.sup.2, about 9 mg/cm.sup.2, or about 10 mg/cm.sup.2. [0045] In certain embodiments, a provided porous composite C1 is characterized in that it: [0046] has a porosity between about 50% and about 60%, [0047] has a thickness between about 85 μm and about 115 μm, [0048] has a % Swt between about 40 and about 60, and [0049] the solid material comprising the porous composite has a ρ.sub.theoretical between about 1.38 and about 1.58 g/cm.sup.3.

[0050] In certain embodiments, a provided porous composite C1 is characterized in that the composite has a % Swt of about 40, and a ρ.sub.theoretical of about 1.38+/−0.05 g/cm.sup.3. In certain embodiments, a composite C1 is characterized in that the composite has a % Swt of about 45, and a ρ.sub.theoretical of about 1.44+/−0.05 g/cm.sup.3. In certain embodiments, a composite C1 is characterized in that the composite has a % Swt of about 50, and a ρ.sub.theoretical of about 1.48+/−0.05 g/cm.sup.3. In certain embodiments, a composite C1 is characterized in that the composite has a % Swt of about 55, and a ρ.sub.theoretical of about 1.53+/−0.05 g/cm.sup.3. In certain embodiments, a composite C1 is characterized in that the composite has a % Swt of about 60, and a ρ.sub.theoretical of about 1.57+/−0.05 g/cm.sup.3.

[0051] In certain embodiments, a composite C1 is characterized in that the composite has a % Swt of about 40, and a thickness between about 85 and about 115 In certain embodiments, a composite C1 is characterized in that the composite has a % Swt of about 45, and a thickness between about 90 and about 110 μm. In certain embodiments, a composite C1 is characterized in that the composite has a % Swt of about 50, and a thickness between about 95 and about 110 μm. In certain embodiments, a composite C1 is characterized in that the composite has a % Swt of about 55, and a thickness between about 100 and about 110 μm. In certain embodiments, a composite C1 is characterized in that the composite has a % Swt of about 60, and a thickness between about 100 and about 110 μm.

[0052] In certain embodiments, a composite C1 is characterized in that the composite has a % Swt of about 50, ρ.sub.theoretical between about 1.45 and about 1.50 g/cm.sup.3, and a thickness between about 95 and about 110 μm. In certain embodiments, a composite C1 is characterized in that the composite has a % Swt of about 60, ρ.sub.theoretical between about 1.55 and about 1.60 g/cm.sup.3, and a thickness between about 100 and about 110 μm.

[0053] In certain embodiments, a composite C1 is characterized in that the composite contains between about 2 and about 10 mg of cathode composite per cm.sup.2 of cathode area. In certain embodiments, a composite C1 is characterized in that the composite contains between about 3 and about 7 mg of cathode composite per cm.sup.2 of cathode area. In certain embodiments, a composite C1 is characterized in that the composite contains between about 4 and about 10 mg of cathode composite per cm.sup.2 of cathode area. In certain embodiments, the composite C1 is characterized in that the composite contains about 6 mg of composite per cm.sup.2 of cathode area. In certain embodiments, the composite C1 is characterized in that the composite contains between about 7 and about 10 mg of composite per cm.sup.2 of cathode area. In certain embodiments, the composite C1 is characterized in that the composite contains about 7 mg, about 8 mg, about 9 mg, or about 10 mg of composite per cm.sup.2 of cathode area.

[0054] In certain embodiments, a provided porous composite C2 is characterized in that it: [0055] has a porosity between about 50% and about 60%, [0056] has a thickness between about 75 μm and about 165 μm, [0057] has a % Swt between about 40 and about 65, and [0058] the solid material comprising the porous composite has a ρ.sub.theoretical between about 1.38 and about 1.60 g/cm.sup.3.

[0059] In certain embodiments, a provided composite C2 is characterized in that: [0060] the porous composite has a porosity between about 50% and about 60%, [0061] the porous composite has a thickness between about 100 μm and about 140 μm, [0062] the porous composite has a % Swt between about 40 and about 65, and [0063] the solid material comprising the porous composite has a ρ.sub.theoretical between about 1.38 and about 1.60 g/cm.sup.3.

[0064] In certain embodiments, a composite C2 is characterized in that the composite has a % Swt of about 40, and a ρ.sub.theoretical of about 1.38+/−0.05 g/cm.sup.3. In certain embodiments, a composite C2 is characterized in that the composite has a % Swt of about 45, and a ρ.sub.theoretical of about 1.44+/−0.05 g/cm.sup.3. In certain embodiments, a composite C2 is characterized in that the composite has a % Swt of about 50, and a ρ.sub.theoretical of about 1.48+/−0.05 g/cm.sup.3. In certain embodiments, a composite C2 is characterized in that the composite has a % Swt of about 55, and a ρ.sub.theoretical of about 1.53+/−0.05 g/cm.sup.3. In certain embodiments, a composite C2 is characterized in that the composite has a % Swt of about 60, and ρ.sub.theoretical of about 1.57+/−0.05 g/cm.sup.3. In certain embodiments, a composite C2 is characterized in that the composite has a % Swt of about 65, and ρ.sub.theoretical of about 1.60+/−0.05 g/cm.sup.3.

[0065] In certain embodiments, a composite C2 is characterized in that the composite has a % Swt of about 40, and a thickness between about 105 and about 165 In certain embodiments, a composite C2 is characterized in that the composite has a % Swt of about 45, and a thickness between about 100 and about 160 In certain embodiments, a composite C2 is characterized in that the composite has a % Swt of about 50, and a thickness between about 105 and about 155 μm. In certain embodiments, a composite C2 is characterized in that the composite has a % Swt of about 50, and a thickness between about 105 and about 140 In certain embodiments, a composite C2 is characterized in that the composite has a % Swt of about 55, and a thickness between about 110 and about 140 In certain embodiments, a composite C2 is characterized in that the composite has a % Swt of about 55, and a thickness between about 110 and about 135 In certain embodiments, a composite C2 is characterized in that the composite has a % Swt of about 60, and a thickness between about 115 and about 145 μm.

[0066] In certain embodiments, a composite C2 is characterized in that the composite has a % Swt of about 40, ρ.sub.theoretical between about 1.35 and about 1.40 g/cm.sup.3, and a thickness between about 100 and about 150 μm. In certain embodiments, a composite C2 is characterized in that the composite has a % Swt of about 50, ρ.sub.theoretical between about 1.45 and about 1.50 g/cm.sup.3, and a thickness between about 105 and about 140 In certain embodiments, a composite C2 is characterized in that the composite has a % Swt of about 60, ρ.sub.theoretical between about 1.55 and about 1.60 g/cm.sup.3, and a thickness between about 115 and about 145 μm.

[0067] In certain embodiments, a composite C2 is characterized in that the composite contains between about 2 and about 10 mg of cathode composite per cm.sup.2 of cathode area. In certain embodiments, a composite C2 is characterized in that the composite contains between about 3 and about 7 mg of cathode composite per cm.sup.2 of cathode area. In certain embodiments, a composite C2 is characterized in that the composite contains between about 6 mg and about 10 mg of composite per cm.sup.2 of cathode area. In certain embodiments, a composite C2 is characterized in that the composite contains between about 7 mg and about 10 mg of composite per cm.sup.2 of cathode area. In certain embodiments, a composite C2 is characterized in that the composite contains about 7 mg, about 8 mg, about 9 mg, or about 10 mg of composite per cm.sup.2 of cathode area.

[0068] In certain embodiments, a provided composite is characterized in that it: [0069] has a porosity between about 50% and about 60%, [0070] has a thickness of between about 100 μm and about 170 μm, [0071] has a % Swt between about 30 and about 60, and [0072] the solid material comprising the porous composite has a ρ.sub.theoretical between about 1.38 and about 1.58 g/cm.sup.3.

[0073] To be applicable as a sulfur cathode composition, composites described herein must comprise sulfur that it is in a form capable of undergoing electrochemical redox reactions. The present disclosure places no specific limitations on the identity of such electroactive sulfur. In fact, in some embodiments, the identity of electroactive sulfur species in provided compositions changes. For example, if a provided composite is present in an electrochemical cell, the identity of sulfur species may vary as a cell undergoes charge or discharge processes. In certain embodiments, provided composites comprise electroactive sulfur in an oxidized form. In some embodiments, electroactive sulfur comprises elemental sulfur, e.g. S.sub.8, or any other sulfur allotrope. In certain embodiments, electroactive sulfur is present as sulfur-containing organic molecules, or sulfur-containing polymers. In certain embodiments, electroactive sulfur is present as metal sulfides, for example, in the form of transition metal sulfides or alkali metal sulfides. In certain embodiments, electroactive sulfur is alloyed with other materials, for example, with selenium, tellurium, phosphorous, or silicon. In certain embodiments, electroactive sulfur is a mixture or composite of any two or more of the above. In certain embodiments, electroactive sulfur is selected from the group consisting of elemental sulfur (S.sub.8), a sulfur-based compound, a sulfur-containing polymer, or combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, electroactive sulfur is selected from the group consisting of Li.sub.2S.sub.n (n≥1), organic-sulfur compounds, and carbon-sulfur polymers ((C.sub.yS.sub.x).sub.n where x=2 to 50, y=1 to 50, and n≥2). In certain embodiments, electroactive sulfur comprises elemental sulfur. In certain embodiments, electroactive sulfur comprises a sulfur-containing polymer.

B. Cathode Compositions

[0074] As mentioned above, porous composites of the present disclosure have utility in manufacture of electrochemical devices. Generally, porous composites disclosed herein would be adhered to a current collector to form cathodes for secondary sulfur batteries. In one aspect, the present disclosure provides such cathodes. Typically, provided porous composites will comprise one or more additives such as electrically conductive particles, binders, and other functional additives typically found in battery cathode mixtures. Generally, provided porous composites include plentiful conductive particles to increase electrical conductivity of a cathode and provide a low resistance pathway for electrons to access such manufactured cathode. In various embodiments, other additives are included in the porous composite to alter or otherwise enhance a cathode produced according to the principles described herein. Generally, provided cathodes will provide a high percentage of porous composite relative to other cathode components (e.g. current collector, connecting tabs, etc).

[0075] In certain embodiments, porous composites of the present disclosure contain conductive materials and a binder. In certain embodiments, a conductive material comprises an electrically conductive material that facilitates movement of electrons within a composite. For example, in certain embodiments, a conductive material is selected from the group consisting of carbon-based materials, graphite-based materials, conductive polymers, metals, semiconductors, metal oxides, metal sulfides, and combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, a conductive material comprises a carbon-based material. In certain embodiments, a conductive material comprises a graphite-based material. For example, in certain embodiments, an electrically conductive material is selected from the group consisting of conductive carbon powders, such as carbon black, Super P®, C-NERGY™ Super C65, Ensaco® black, Ketjenblack®, acetylene black, synthetic graphite such as Timrex® SFG-6, Timrex® SFG-15, Timrex® SFG-44, Timrex® KS-6, Timrex® KS-15, Timrex® KS-44, natural flake graphite, carbon nanotubes, fullerenes, hard carbon, mesocarbon microbeads, and the like. In certain embodiments, a conductive material comprises one or more conductive polymers. For example, in certain embodiments, a conductive polymer is selected from the group consisting of polyaniline, polythiophene, polyacetylene, polypyrrole, and the like. In some embodiments, a conductive polymer is a cationic polymer. In some embodiments, a cationic polymer is a quaternary ammonium polymer. In certain embodiments, a cationic polymer is selected from the group consisting of a polydiallyldimethylammonium salt, a poly[(3-chloro-2-hydroxypropyl)methacryloxyethyldimethyl-ammonium salt, a poly(butyl acrylate-methacryloxyethyltrimethylammonium) salt, poly(1-methyl-4-vinylpyridinium) salt, a poly(1-methyl-2-vinylpyridinium) salt, and a poly(methyacryloxyethyltriethylammonium) salt. In certain embodiments, a cationic polymer is selected from polydiallyldimethylammonium chloride (polyDADMAC), polybrene, epichlorohydrin-dimethylamine (epi-DMA), poly[(3-chloro-2-hydroxypropyl)methacryloxyethyldimethyl-ammonium chloride), poly(acrylamide-methacryloxyethyltrimethylammonium bromide), poly(butyl acrylate-methacryloxyethyltrimethylammonium bromide), poly(1-methyl-4-vinylpyridinium bromide), poly(1-methyl-2-vinylpyridinium bromide), and poly(methyacryloxyethyltriethylammonium bromide). In certain embodiments, a conductive material comprises one or more metal oxides or sulfides. For example, in certain embodiments, a conductive material comprises one or more oxides or sulfides of a first-row transition metal such as titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, copper, zinc, or combinations thereof. For example, in certain embodiments, a conductive material comprises one or more oxides or sulfides of a second-row transition metal such as zirconium, indium, tin, antimony, or combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, a conductive material is used alone. In other embodiments, a conductive material is used as a mixture of two or more conductive materials described above.

[0076] In certain embodiments, a binder is included in the provided porous composite materials. Binders are typically polymeric materials that help adhere individual particles composing a cathode mixture into a stable composite. Representative binders include polyvinylidene fluoride, poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropene) (PVDF/HFP), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), Kynar Flex® 2801, Kynar® Powerflex LBG, Kynar® HSV 900, Teflon®, carboxymethylcellulose, styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR), polyethylene oxide, polypropylene oxide, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyacrylates, polyvinyl pyrrolidone, poly(methyl methacrylate), polyethyl acrylate, polytetrafluoroethylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyacrylonitrile, polycaprolactam, polyethylene terephthalate, polybutadiene, polyisoprene or polyacrylic acid, or derivatives, mixtures, or copolymers of any of these. In some embodiments, a binder is water soluble binder, such as sodium alginate, carrageenan, or carboxymethyl cellulose. Generally, binders hold active materials together and in contact with a current collector (e.g., a metal foil such as aluminum, stainless steel, or copper, or a conductive carbon sheet). In certain embodiments, a binder is selected from the group consisting of poly(vinyl acetate), polyvinyl alcohol, polyethylene oxide, polyvinyl pyrrolidone, alkylated polyethylene oxide, crosslinked polyethylene oxide, polyvinyl ether, poly(methyl methacrylate), polyvinylidene fluoride, a copolymer of polyhexafluoropropylene and polyvinylidene fluoride, polyethyl acrylate, polytetrafluoroethylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyacrylonitrile, polyvinyl pyridine, polystyrene, and derivatives, mixtures, and copolymers thereof. In some embodiments, a binder is a cationic polymer. In some embodiments, a binder is a quaternary ammonium polymer. In some embodiments, a binder is a cationic polymer as described above.

[0077] In certain embodiments, a cathode further comprises a coating layer. For example, in certain embodiments, a coating layer comprises a polymer, an organic material, an inorganic material, or a mixture thereof that is not an integral part of the porous composite or the current collector. In certain such embodiments, a polymer is selected from the group consisting of polyvinylidene fluoride, a copolymer of polyvinylidene fluoride and hexafluoropropylene, poly(vinyl acetate), poly(vinyl butyral-co-vinyl alcohol-co-vinyl acetate), poly(methylmethacrylate-co-ethyl acrylate), polyacrylonitrile, polyvinyl chloride-co-vinyl acetate, polyvinyl alcohol, poly(1-vinylpyrrolidone-co-vinyl acetate), cellulose acetate, polyvinyl pyrrolidone, polyacrylate, polymethacrylate, polyolefin, polyurethane, polyvinyl ether, acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber, styrene-butadiene rubber, acrylonitrile-butadiene styrene, a sulfonated styrene/ethylene-butylene/styrene triblock copolymer, polyethylene oxide, and derivatives, mixtures, and copolymers thereof. In some embodiments, a coating layer comprises a cationic polymer. In some embodiments, a coating layer comprises a quaternary ammonium polymer. In some embodiments, a coating layer comprises a cationic polymer as described above. In certain such embodiments, an inorganic material comprises, for example, colloidal silica, amorphous silica, surface-treated silica, colloidal alumina, amorphous alumina, tin oxide, titanium oxide, titanium sulfide (TiS.sub.2), vanadium oxide, zirconium oxide (ZrO.sub.2), iron oxide, iron sulfide (FeS), iron titanate (FeTiO.sub.3), barium titanate (BaTiO.sub.3), and combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, an organic material comprises conductive carbon.

[0078] Suitable materials for use in cathode mixtures are disclosed in Cathode Materials for Lithium Sulfur Batteries: Design, Synthesis, and Electrochemical Performance, Lianfeng, et al., Interchopen.com, Published June 1st 2016, and The strategies of advanced cathode composites for lithium-sulfur batteries, Zhou et al., SCIENCE CHINA Technological Sciences, Volume 60, Issue 2: 175-185(2017), the entire disclosures of each of which are hereby incorporated by reference herein.

C. Anode

[0079] In certain embodiments, a secondary sulfur battery comprises a lithium anode. Any lithium anode suitable for use in lithium-sulfur cells may be used. In certain embodiments, an anode of a secondary sulfur battery comprises a negative active material selected from materials in which lithium intercalation reversibly occurs, materials that react with lithium ions to form a lithium-containing compound, metallic lithium, lithium alloys, and combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, an anode comprises metallic lithium. In certain embodiments, lithium-containing anodic compositions comprise carbon-based compounds. In certain embodiments, a carbon-based compound is selected from the group consisting of crystalline carbon, amorphous carbon, graphite, and mixtures thereof. In certain embodiments, a material that reacts with lithium ions to form a lithium-containing compound is selected from the group consisting of tin oxide (SnO.sub.2), titanium nitrate, and silicon. In certain embodiments, a lithium alloy comprises an alloy of lithium with another alkali metal (e.g. sodium, potassium, rubidium or cesium). In certain embodiments, a lithium alloy comprises an alloy of lithium with a transition metal. In certain embodiments, lithium alloys include alloys of lithium and a metal selected from the group consisting of Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr, Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra, Al, Sn, In, Zn, Sm, La, and combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, a lithium alloy comprises an alloy of lithium with indium. In certain embodiments, a lithium alloy comprises an alloy of lithium with aluminum. In certain embodiments, a lithium alloy comprises an alloy of lithium with zinc. In certain embodiments, an anode comprises a lithium-silicon alloy. Examples of suitable lithium-silicon alloys include: Li.sub.15S.sub.14, Li.sub.12S.sub.17, Li.sub.7Si.sub.3, Li.sub.13Si.sub.4, and Li.sub.21Si.sub.5/Li.sub.22Si.sub.5. In certain embodiments, a lithium metal or lithium alloy is present as a composite with another material. In certain embodiments, such composites include materials such as graphite, graphene, metal sulfides or oxides, or conductive polymers.

[0080] In some embodiments, an anode is protected against redox shuttling reactions and hazardous runaway reactions by any of the methodologies reported in the art, for example, by creating a protective layer on a surface of an anode by chemical passivation or by deposition or polymerization. For example, in certain embodiments, an anode comprises an inorganic protective layer, an organic protective layer, or a mixture thereof, on a surface of lithium metal. In certain embodiments, an inorganic protective layer comprises Mg, Al, B, Sn, Pb, Cd, Si, In, Ga, lithium silicate, lithium borate, lithium phosphate, lithium phosphoronitride, lithium silicosulfide, lithium borosulfide, lithium aluminosulfide, lithium phosphosulfide, lithium fluoride or combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, an organic protective layer includes a conductive monomer, oligomer, or polymer. In certain embodiments, such polymer is selected from poly(p-phenylene), polyacetylene, poly(p-phenylene vinylene), polyaniline, polypyrrole, polythiophene, poly(2,5-ethylene vinylene), acetylene, poly(perinaphthalene), polyacene, and poly(naphthalene-2,6-di-yl), or combinations thereof.

[0081] Moreover, in certain embodiments, inactive sulfur material, generated from an electroactive sulfur material of a cathode, during charging and discharging of a secondary sulfur battery, attaches to an anode surface. The term “inactive sulfur”, as used herein, refers to sulfur that has no activity upon repeated electrochemical and chemical reactions, such that it cannot participate in an electrochemical reaction of a cathode. In certain embodiments, inactive sulfur on an anode surface acts as a protective layer on such electrode. In certain embodiments, inactive sulfur is lithium sulfide

[0082] It is further contemplated that the present disclosure can be adapted for use in sodium-sulfur batteries. Such sodium-sulfur batteries comprise a sodium-based anode, and are encompassed within the scope of the present disclosure.

D. Preparation of Electrodes

[0083] There are a variety of methods for manufacturing electrodes for use in a secondary sulfur battery. One process, such as a “wet process,” involves adding the solid cathode materials to a liquid to prepare a slurry composition. These slurries are typically in the form of a viscous liquid that is formulated to facilitate a downstream coating operation. A thorough mixing of a slurry can be important for coating and drying operations, which affect performance and quality of an electrode. Suitable mixing devices include ball mills, magnetic stirrers, sonication, planetary mixers, high speed mixers, homogenizers, universal type mixers, and static mixers. A liquid used to make a slurry can be one that homogeneously disperses an active material, a binder, a conducting material, and any additives, and that is easily evaporated. Suitable slurry liquids include, for example, N-methylpyrrolidone, acetonitrile, methanol, ethanol, propanol, butanol, tetrahydrofuran, water, isopropyl alcohol, dimethylpyrrolidone, propylene carbonate, gamma butyrolactone and the like.

[0084] In some embodiments, a prepared composition is coated on a current collector and dried to form an electrode. Specifically, a slurry is used to coat an electrical conductor to form an electrode by evenly spreading a slurry on to a conductor, which is then, in certain embodiments, optionally roll-pressed (e.g. calendared) and heated as is known in the art. Generally, a matrix of an active material and conductive material are held together and on a conductor by a binder. In certain embodiments, a matrix comprises a polymer binder, such as polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropene) (PVDF/HFP), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), Kynar Flex® 2801, Kynar® Powerflex LBG, Kynar® HSV 900, Teflon®, styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), polyethylene oxide (PEO), or polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). In certain embodiments, additional carbon particles, carbon nanofibers, carbon nanotubes, are dispersed in a matrix to improve electrical conductivity. Alternatively or additionally, in certain embodiments, lithium salts are dispersed in a matrix to improve lithium conductivity.

[0085] In certain embodiments, a current collector is selected from the group consisting of: aluminum foil, copper foil, nickel foil, stainless steel foil, titanium foil, zirconium foil, molybdenum foil, nickel foam, copper foam, carbon paper or carbon fiber sheets, polymer substrates coated with conductive metal, and/or combinations thereof.

[0086] PCT Publication Nos. WO2015/003184, WO2014/074150, and WO2013/040067, the entire disclosures of which are hereby incorporated by reference herein, describe various methods of fabricating electrodes and electrochemical cells.

E. Separator

[0087] In certain embodiments, a secondary sulfur battery comprises a separator, which divides the anode and cathode and prevents direct electron conduction between them. In certain embodiments, the separator has a high lithium ion permeability. In certain embodiments, a separator is relatively less permeable to polysulfide ions dissolved in electrolyte. In certain such embodiments, a separator as a whole inhibits or restricts passage of electrolyte-soluble sulfides between anodic and cathodic portions of a battery. In certain embodiments, a separator of impermeable material is configured to allow lithium ion transport between anode and cathode of a battery during charging and discharging of a cell. In some such embodiments, a separator is porous. One or more electrolyte-permeable channels bypassing, or penetrating through apertures in, an impermeable face of a separator can be provided to allow sufficient lithium ion flux between anodic and cathodic portions of a battery.

[0088] It will be appreciated by a person skilled in the art that optimal dimensions of a separator must balance competing imperatives: maximum impedance to polysulfide migration while allowing sufficient lithium ion flux. Aside from this consideration, shape and orientation of a separator is not particularly limited, and depends in part on battery configuration. For example, in some embodiments, a separator is substantially circular in a coin-type cell, and substantially rectangular in a pouch-type cell. In some embodiments, a separator is substantially flat. However, it is not excluded that curved or other non-planar configurations may be used.

[0089] A separator may be of any suitable thickness. In order to maximize energy density of a battery, it is generally preferred that a separator is as thin and light as possible. However, a separator should be thick enough to provide sufficient mechanical robustness and to ensure suitable electrical separation of the electrodes. In certain embodiments, a separator has a thickness of from about 1 μm to about 200 μm, preferably from about 5 μm to about 100 μm, more preferably from about 10 μm to about 30 μm.

F. Electrolyte

[0090] In certain embodiments, a secondary sulfur battery comprises an electrolyte comprising an electrolytic salt. Examples of electrolytic salts include, for example, lithium trifluoromethane sulfonimide, lithium triflate, lithium perchlorate, LiPF.sub.6, LiBF.sub.4, tetraalkylammonium salts (e.g. tetrabutylammonium tetrafluoroborate, TBABF.sub.4), liquid state salts at room temperature (e.g. imidazolium salts, such as 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis-(perfluoroethyl sulfonyl)imide, EMIBeti), and the like.

[0091] In certain embodiments, an electrolyte comprises one or more alkali metal salts. In certain embodiments, such salts comprise lithium salts, such as LiCF.sub.3SO.sub.3, LiClO.sub.4, LiNO.sub.3, LiPF.sub.6, LiBr, LiTDI, LiFSI, and LiTFSI, or combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, an electrolyte comprises ionic liquids, such as 1-ethyl-3-methylimidzaolium-TFSI, N-butyl-N-methyl-piperidinium-TFSI, N-methyl-n-butyl pyrrolidinium-TFSI, and N-methyl-N-propylpiperidinium-TFSI, or combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, an electrolyte comprises superionic conductors, such as sulfides, oxides, and phosphates, for example, phosphorous pentasulfide, or combinations thereof.

[0092] In certain embodiments, an electrolyte is a liquid. For example, in certain embodiments, an electrolyte comprises an organic solvent. In certain embodiments, an electrolyte comprises only one organic solvent. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a mixture of two or more organic solvents. In certain embodiments, a mixture of organic solvents comprising one or more weak polar solvents, strong polar solvents, and lithium protecting solvents.

[0093] The term “weak polar solvent”, as used herein, is defined as a solvent that is capable of dissolving elemental sulfur and has a dielectric coefficient of less than 15. A weak polar solvent is selected from aryl compounds, bicyclic ethers, and acyclic carbonate compounds. Examples of weak polar solvents include xylene, dimethoxyethane, 2-methyltetrahydrofuran, diethyl carbonate, dimethyl carbonate, toluene, dimethyl ether, diethyl ether, diglyme, tetraglyme, and the like. The term “strong polar solvent”, as used herein, is defined as a solvent that is capable of dissolving lithium polysulfide and has a dielectric coefficient of more than 15. A strong polar solvent is selected from bicyclic carbonate compounds, sulfoxide compounds, lactone compounds, ketone compounds, ester compounds, sulfate compounds, and sulfite compounds. Examples of strong polar solvents include hexamethyl phosphoric triamide, γ-butyrolactone, acetonitrile, ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, N-methylpyrrolidone, 3-methyl-2-oxazolidone, dimethyl formamide, sulfolane, dimethyl acetamide, dimethyl sulfoxide, dimethyl sulfate, ethylene glycol diacetate, dimethyl sulfite, ethylene glycol sulfite, and the like. The term “lithium protection solvent”, as used herein, is defined as a solvent that forms a good protective layer, i.e. a stable solid-electrolyte interface (SEI) layer, on a lithium surface, and which shows a cyclic efficiency of at least 50%. A lithium protection solvent is selected from saturated ether compounds, unsaturated ether compounds, and heterocyclic compounds including one or more heteroatoms selected from the group consisting of N, O, and/or S. Examples of lithium protection solvents include tetrahydrofuran, 1,3-dioxolane, 3,5-dimethylisoxazole, 2,5-dimethyl furan, furan, 2-methyl furan, 1,4-oxane, 4-methyldioxolane, and the like.

[0094] In certain embodiments, an electrolyte is a liquid (e.g., an organic solvent). In some embodiments, a liquid is selected from the group consisting of organocarbonates, ethers, sulfones, water, alcohols, fluorocarbons, or combinations of any of these. In certain embodiments, an electrolyte comprises an ethereal solvent.

[0095] In certain embodiments, an organic solvent comprises an ether. In certain embodiments, an organic solvent is selected from the group consisting of 1,3-dioxolane, dimethoxyethane, diglyme, triglyme, γ-butyrolactone, γ-valerolactone, and combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, an organic solvent comprises a mixture of 1,3-dioxolane and dimethoxyethane. In certain embodiments, an organic solvent comprises a 1:1 v/v mixture of 1,3-dioxolane and dimethoxyethane. In certain embodiments, an organic solvent is selected from the group consisting of: diglyme, triglyme, γ-butyrolactone, γ-valerolactone, and combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, an electrolyte comprises sulfolane, sulfolene, dimethyl sulfone, methyl ethyl sulfone, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate, diethyl carbonate, methylethyl carbonate, or a combination thereof.

[0096] In certain embodiments, an electrolyte is a solid. In certain embodiments, a solid electrolyte comprises a polymer. In certain embodiments, a solid electrolyte comprises a glass, a ceramic, an inorganic composite, or combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, a solid electrolyte comprises a polymer composite with a glass, a ceramic, an inorganic composite, or combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, such solid electrolytes comprise one or more liquid components as plasticizers or to form a “gel electrolyte”.

G. Secondary Sulfur Battery

[0097] In one aspect, the present invention provides secondary sulfur batteries comprising porous cathode compositions described above. For example, in certain embodiments, such batteries include a lithium-containing anode composition coupled to the provided cathode composition by a lithium conducting electrolyte. In some embodiments, such batteries also comprise additional components such as separators between the anode and cathode, anodic and cathodic current collectors, terminals by which a cell can be coupled to an external load, and packaging such as a flexible pouch or a rigid metal container. It is further contemplated that the present disclosure regarding secondary sulfur batteries can be adapted for use in sodium-sulfur batteries, and such batteries are also considered within the scope of certain embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0098] FIG. 1 illustrates a cross section of an electrochemical cell 800 in accordance with exemplary embodiments of the disclosure. Electrochemical cell 800 includes a negative electrode 802, a positive electrode 804, a separator 806 interposed between negative electrode 802 and positive electrode 804, a container 810, and a fluid electrolyte 812 in contact with negative and positive electrodes 802, 804. Such cells optionally include additional layers of electrode and separators 802a, 802b, 804a, 804b, 806a, and 806b.

[0099] Negative electrode 802 (also sometimes referred to herein as an anode) comprises a negative electrode active material that can accept cations. Non-limiting examples of negative electrode active materials for lithium-based electrochemical cells include Li metal, Li alloys such as those of Si, Sn, Bi, In, and/or Al alloys, Li.sub.4Ti.sub.5O.sub.12, hard carbon, graphitic carbon, metal chalcogenides, and/or amorphous carbon. In accordance with some embodiments of the disclosure, most (e.g., greater than 90 wt %) of an anode active material can be initially included in a discharged positive electrode 804 (also sometimes referred to herein as a cathode) when electrochemical cell 800 is initially made, so that an electrode active material forms part of first electrode 802 during a first charge of electrochemical cell 800.

[0100] A technique for depositing electroactive material on a portion of negative electrode 802 is described in U.S. Patent Publication Nos. 2016/0172660 and 2016/0172661, in the name of Fischer et al., the contents of each of which are hereby incorporated herein by reference, to the extent such contents do not conflict with the present disclosure.

[0101] Positive electrode 804 (also referred to herein as cathode) comprises a cathode composition as described herein. In certain embodiments, a positive electrode comprises a porous composite as described herein. In certain embodiments, a porous cathode composite comprises about 30 to about 70 wt % electroactive sulfur. In certain embodiments, a cathode comprises at least about 70% of total sulfur present in an electrochemical cell. In certain embodiments, a cathode comprises at least about 80% of total sulfur present in an electrochemical cell. In certain embodiments, a cathode comprises at least about 90% of total sulfur present in an electrochemical cell. In certain embodiments, a cathode comprises at least about 95% of total sulfur present in an electrochemical cell. In certain embodiments, a cathode comprises at least about 99% of total sulfur present in an electrochemical cell. In certain embodiments, a cathode comprises essentially all of the total sulfur present in an electrochemical cell.

[0102] Negative electrode 802 and positive electrode 804 can further include one or more electrically conductive additives as described herein. In accordance with some embodiments of the disclosure, negative electrode 802 and/or positive electrode 804 further include one or more polymer binders as described below.

[0103] FIG. 2 illustrates an example of a battery according to various embodiments described below. A cylindrical battery is shown here for illustration purposes, but other types of arrangements, including prismatic or pouch (laminate-type) batteries, may also be used as desired. Example Li battery 901 includes a negative anode 902, a positive cathode 904, a separator 906 interposed between the anode 902 and the cathode 904, an electrolyte (not shown) impregnating the separator 906, a battery case 905, and a sealing member 908 sealing the battery case 905. It will be appreciated that example battery 901 may simultaneously embody multiple aspects of the present disclosure in various designs.

[0104] A secondary sulfur battery of the present disclosure comprises a lithium anode, a porous sulfur-based cathode, and an electrolyte permitting lithium ion transport between anode and cathode. In certain embodiments, described herein, an anodic portion of a battery comprises an anode and a portion of electrolyte with which it is in contact. Similarly, in certain embodiments, described herein, a cathodic portion of a battery comprises a cathode and a portion of electrolyte with which it is in contact. In certain embodiments, a battery comprises a lithium ion-permeable separator, which defines a boundary between an anodic portion and a cathodic portion. In certain embodiments, a battery comprises a case, which encloses both anodic and cathodic portions. In certain embodiments, a battery case comprises an electrically conductive anodic-end cover in electrical communication with an anode, and an electrically conductive cathodic-end cover in electrical communication with a cathode to facilitate charging and discharging via an external circuit.

[0105] In certain embodiments, a secondary sulfur battery of the present disclosure is defined in terms of its ratio of electrolyte to electroactive sulfur. Electrolyte volume and the ratio (vol/wt) of electrolyte to sulfur in a cathode correlate to energy density of a sulfur battery. Electrolyte may be distributed among different volumes within a cell, for example electrolyte may be contained in porosity of the cathode, in the separator, and in contact with the anode or within an anodic solid electrolyte interphase. Electrolyte may also be contained in other spaces within a battery where it is not in direct contact with the anodic or cathodic active materials—for example electrolyte may be stranded in an annular volume at the edges of a coin cell. In certain embodiments, the present invention provides batteries where all or most of the electrolyte is contained within the cathode. Preferably, substantially all of the electrolyte is contained within the cathode and only a minimal amount of electrolyte that is necessary to wet the separator and the anode surface or SEI is outside of the cathode. Electrolyte contained within the cathode is referred to as “contained electrolyte” and its volume V.sub.CE can be estimated as theoretical pore volume, or porosity multiplied by the geometric volume of a cathode film:

V.sub.CE=P%×Area×thickness.sub.cathode

[0106] In certain embodiments, a provided secondary sulfur battery is characterized in that at least 50% of the total electrolyte inventory (V.sub.tot) is contained in the cathode (e.g. V.sub.CE/V.sub.tot>0.5). In certain embodiments, a provided secondary sulfur battery is characterized in that at least 50% of the total electrolyte inventory (V.sub.tot) is contained in the cathode (e.g. V.sub.CE/V.sub.tot>0.8). In certain embodiments, a secondary sulfur battery has at least 60%, at least 65%, or at least 70% of the electrolyte contained in the cathode porosity. In certain embodiments, a secondary sulfur battery has at least 80%, at least 85%, or at least 90%, of the electrolyte contained in the cathode porosity. In certain embodiments, a secondary sulfur battery has at least 92%, at least 94%, at least 95%, at least 96%, or at least 97% of the electrolyte contained in the cathode.

[0107] The ratio of total electrolyte-to-sulfur (E/S) is another parameter that influences the energy density of a battery. The E/S ratio is calculated based on the total volume of electrolyte V.sub.tot and the mass of electroactive sulfur (m.sub.sulfur):

[00001]$\frac{E}{S}=\frac{V_{\mathrm{tot}}}{m_{\mathrm{sulfur}}}$

[0108] In certain embodiments, a secondary sulfur battery has an electrolyte-to-sulfur ratio equal to or less than about 6 microliters of electrolyte per milligram of electroactive sulfur. In certain embodiments, a secondary sulfur battery has an electrolyte-to-sulfur ratio equal to or less than about 5 microliters of electrolyte per milligram of electroactive sulfur. In certain embodiments, a secondary sulfur battery has an electrolyte-to-sulfur ratio equal to or less than about 4.5 microliters of electrolyte per milligram of electroactive sulfur. In certain embodiments, a secondary sulfur battery has an electrolyte-to-sulfur ratio equal to or less than about 3.5 microliters of electrolyte per milligram of electroactive sulfur or less than about 3.0 microliters of electrolyte per milligram of electroactive sulfur. In certain embodiments, a secondary sulfur battery has an electrolyte-to-sulfur ratio equal to or less than about 3.5 microliters of electrolyte per milligram of electroactive sulfur. In certain embodiments, a secondary sulfur battery has an electrolyte-to-sulfur ratio equal to or less than about 3 microliters of electrolyte per milligram of electroactive sulfur. In certain embodiments, a secondary sulfur battery has an electrolyte-to-sulfur ratio between about 1.8 and about 3.5 μL/mg S. In certain embodiments, a secondary sulfur battery has an electrolyte-to-sulfur ratio between about 1.8 and about 2.5 μL/mg S.

[0109] In certain embodiments, a provided secondary sulfur battery comprises a porous cathode composite containing about 30 to about 65 wt % electroactive sulfur, and is characterized in that: [0110] a ratio of electrolyte to sulfur is equal to or less than about 3.5 μL/mg S; [0111] a cathode has an areal loading of between about 6 mg and about 10 mg of cathode composite per square centimeter of cathode; and [0112] a cathode composite has a porosity of at least about 50%.

[0113] In certain embodiments, a provided secondary sulfur battery comprises a porous cathode composite containing about 30 to about 60 wt % electroactive sulfur, and is characterized in that: [0114] a ratio of electrolyte to sulfur is equal to or less than about 3 μL/mg S; [0115] a cathode has an areal loading of between about 6 mg and about 10 mg of cathode composite per square centimeter of cathode; and [0116] a cathode composite has a porosity of at least about 50%.

[0117] In certain embodiments, a provided secondary sulfur battery comprises a porous cathode composite containing about 30 to about 65 wt % electroactive sulfur, and is characterized in that: [0118] a ratio of electrolyte to sulfur is equal to or less than about 3.5 μL/mg S; [0119] a cathode has an areal loading of between about 6 mg and about 10 mg of cathode composite per square centimeter of cathode; and [0120] a cathode composite has a thickness between about 75 and about 165 μm.

[0121] In certain embodiments, a provided secondary sulfur battery comprises a porous cathode composite containing 30 to 60 wt % electroactive sulfur, and is characterized in that: [0122] a ratio of electrolyte to sulfur is equal to or less than about 3 μL/mg S; [0123] a cathode has an areal loading of between about 6 mg and about 10 mg of cathode composite per square centimeter of cathode; and [0124] a cathode composite has a thickness between about 80 and about 150 μm.

[0125] In certain embodiments, provided batteries are characterized in that a cathode composition contains more than half of the total electrolyte in a battery. In certain embodiments, a volume of electrolyte contained in the pores of a provided cathode composition represents more than about 60%, more than about 65%, more than about 70%, more than about 75%, or more than about 80% of the total electrolyte in a battery. In certain embodiments, a volume of electrolyte contained in pores of a provided cathode composition represents more than about 82%, more than about 84%, more than about 86%, more than about 87.5%, or more than about 90% of the total electrolyte in a battery. In certain embodiments, a volume of electrolyte contained in pores of a provided cathode composition represents more than about 91%, more than about 92%, more than about 93%, more than about 94%, or more than about 95% of the total electrolyte in a battery.

V. EXAMPLES

[0126] The following examples embody certain methods of the present disclosure and demonstrate fabrication of porous cathode composites, and secondary sulfur batteries comprising the same, according to certain embodiments described herein. Moreover, the following examples are included to demonstrate principles of disclosed compositions and methods and are not intended as limiting.

Example 1: Measurement and Calculation of Porous Cathode Composite Characteristics

Porosity

[0127] Porosity of a composite cathode film is defined as:

P%=(1−ρ.sub.bulk/ρ.sub.theoretical).Math.100%

where ρ.sub.bulk is the mass of a cathode divided by its geometric volume (thickness×area), and ρ.sub.theoretical is the sum of the weighted theoretical (or atomic) densities of each component in a composite electrode.

[0128] An exemplary porous cathode composite is formulated with 75 wt % active material, where the active material is 80% sulfur and 20% conductive polymer (polyaniline, PAni) by weight, 14 wt % conductive material (carbon black), and 11 wt % binder (polyvinylidine fluoride, PVDF). Particle densities for each of the components are: ρ.sub.sulfur=2.0 g/cm.sup.3, ρ.sub.carbon black=1.60 g/cm.sup.3, ρ.sub.pvdt=1.760 g/cm.sup.3, ρ.sub.pani=1.360 g/cm.sup.3. The weighted density of the ρ.sub.theoretical is determined according to:

ρ.sub.theoretical=0.75×[(0.80×2.0)+(0.20×1.36)]+[0.14×1.6]+[0.11×1.76]=1.822

[0129] 15 μm thick aluminum foil is coated with a porous cathode composite, then dried and punched into a round disk with a diameter of 1.27 cm (0.5 in) having a measured thickness of 117 μm and a mass of 13.4 mg. Accounting for the mass and thickness of the aluminum foil substrate (˜5.4 mg and 15 μm, respectively) the bulk or geometric density is determined according to:

[00002]${\rho }_{\mathrm{bulk}}=\frac{\left(13.4-5.4\mathrm{mg}\right).Math.1g/1,000\mathrm{mg}}{1.267{\mathrm{cm}}^2.Math.\left(117-15\mathrm{\mu m}\right).Math.1\mathrm{cm}/10,000\mathrm{\mu m}}=0.619g/{\mathrm{cm}}^3$

[0130] From the values for ρ.sub.particle and ρ.sub.bulk, the porosity of the cathode film is determined according to:

P%(1−0.619/1.822).Math.100%=66%

Sulfur-Loading

[0131] Potential storage capacity of a cathode composite is correlated to sulfur content, which is quantified via two metrics: sulfur mass fraction (% Swt) and area specific sulfur loading (S.sub.area) Sulfur mass fraction of a cathode film is sulfur mass divided by total composite cathode film mass. For the exemplary composite of this example, % Swt is determined according to:

[00003]$\%\mathrm{Swt}=\text{.75}*\text{.8}*\frac{\left(13.4-5.4\right)\mathrm{mg}}{\left(13.4-5.4\right)\mathrm{mg}}*100\%=60\%$

Area specific sulfur loading is then evaluated as the product of sulfur mass fraction and cathode film mass, divided by punched cathode disk area.

[00004]$\mathrm{Sulfur}\mathrm{Loading}\left(S_{\mathrm{area}}\right)=\frac{\left(13.4\mathrm{mg}-5.4\mathrm{mg}\right)\times \frac{1g}{1,000\mathrm{mg}}}{1.267{\mathrm{cm}}^2}.Math.60\%\mathrm{Swt}=3.79\mathrm{mg}S/{\mathrm{cm}}^2$

Electrolyte-Sulfur Ratio

[0132] Electrolyte volume and ratio (vol/wt) of electrolyte to sulfur in a cathode are also found to correlate to performance of a sulfur composite cathode. In measurement of these properties, the volume of electrolyte added to the coin cell (Vtot) is controlled by adding a known quantity during cell construction (0.011 cm.sup.3). The fraction of the added electrolyte that is contained within the cathode (V.sub.CE) can be estimated as follows:

[00005]$$\begin{gathered} V_{CE}=P\%\times \mathrm{Area}\times \mathrm{thicknes}{s}_{\mathrm{cathode}} \\ {V}_{CE}=66\%\times 1.267{\mathrm{cm}}^2\times \left(117\mathrm{\mu m}-15\mathrm{\mu m}\right)\times \frac{1\mathrm{cm}}{10,000\mathrm{\mu m}}=0.0085{\mathrm{cm}}^3 \end{gathered}$$

[0133] The percentage of the total electrolyte inventory contained within the cathode is therefore V.sub.CE/V.sub.tot or 0.085/0.011=77.3%.

[0134] The electrolyte-to-sulfur (E/S) ratio (vol/wt) for this exemplary embodiment is determined according to:

[00006]$\frac{E}{S}=\frac{V_{\mathrm{tot}}}{m_{\mathrm{sulfur}}}=\frac{0.0011{\mathrm{cm}}^3}{0.0048\mathrm{gS}}=2.3\mathrm{\mu L}/\mathrm{mg}S$

[0135] The porous composite described in this example is characterized in that the composite film has an areal mass of 6.3 mg/cm.sup.2 with a mass sulfur fraction of 60%, a porosity of 65%, and an E/S ratio of 2.3 μL/mg S.

Example 2: Characteristics of Exemplary Porous Cathode Composites

[0136] Exemplary composite films are prepared at total cathode solid loadings ranging from about 4.5 mg to 7 mg S/cm.sup.2 with corresponding cathode thicknesses in of a range between 85 μm to 135 μm (including the cathode film and the 15 μm Al-substrate), according to parameters presented in Tables 1 to 4. The corresponding E/S ratio with respect to the electrolyte contained in the cathode (V.sub.CE/mg S) is shown for each cathode.

TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Characteristics of a porous cathode with loading (total solids) of 4.72 mg/cm.sup.2 Cathode E/S Composite # % Porosity Thickness(μm) (V.sub.CE/mg S) % S-cathode: 40%, ρ.sub.theoretical 1.382, mg S/cm.sup.2 1.894 1 50 85.033 1.809 2 55 92.647 2.211 3 60 102.166 2.713 4 65 114.404 3.360 % S-cathode: 45%, ρ.sub.theoretical 1.436, mg S/cm.sup.2 2.131 5 55 89.784 1.891 6 60 98.944 2.321 7 65 110.722 2.874 % S-cathode: 50%, ρ.sub.theoretical 1.478, mg S/cm.sup.2 2.368 8 60 96.601 2.030 9 65 108.044 2.513 % S-cathode: 55%, ρ.sub.theoretical 1.531, mg S/cm.sup.2 2.605 10 65 104.875 2.206 % S-cathode: 60%, ρ.sub.theoretical 1.57, mg S/cm.sup.2 2.841 11 65 102.680 1.971

TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 Characteristics of a porous cathode with loading (total solids) of 5.51 mg/cm.sup.2 Cathode E/S Composite # % Porosity Thickness(μm) (V.sub.CE/mg S) % S-cathode: 40%, ρ.sub.theoretical 1.382, mg S/cm.sup.2 1.894 12 55 105.338 2.211 13 60 116.443 2.713 14 65 130.721 3.360 % S-cathode: 45%, ρ.sub.theoretical 1.436, mg S/cm.sup.2 2.486 15 55 101.998 1.891 16 60 112.685 2.321 17 65 126.426 2.874 % S-cathode: 50%, ρ.sub.theoretical 1.478, mg S/cm.sup.2 2.762 18 60 109.952 2.030 19 65 123.302 2.513 % S-cathode: 55%, ρ.sub.theoretical 1.531, mg S/cm.sup.2 3.039 20 65 119.605 2.206 % S-cathode: 60%, ρ.sub.theoretical 1.57, mg S/cm.sup.2 3.315 21 65 117.043 1.971

TABLE-US-00003 TABLE 3 Characteristics of a porous cathode with loading (total solids) of 6.30 mg/cm.sup.2 Cathode Thickness E/S Composite # % Porosity (μm) (V.sub.CE/mg S) % S-cathode: 40%, ρ.sub.theoretical 1.382, mg S/cm.sup.2 2.526 22 50 107.877 1.809 23 55 118.030 2.211 24 60 130.721 2.713 % S-cathode: 45%, ρ.sub.theoretical 1.436, mg S/cm.sup.2 2.841 25 55 114.212 1.891 26 60 126.426 2.321 % S-cathode: 50%, ρ.sub.theoretical1.478, mg S/cm.sup.2 3.157 27 60 123.302 2.030 % S-cathode: 55%, ρ.sub.theoretical 1.531, mg S/cm.sup.2 3.473 28 65 134.334 2.206 % S-cathode: 60%, ρ.sub.theoretical 1.57, mg S/cm.sup.2 3.788 29 65 131.407 1.971 % S-cathode: 65%, ρ.sub.theoretical 1.592, mg S/cm.sup.2 4.104 30 65 129.819 1.795

TABLE-US-00004 TABLE 4 Characteristics of a porous cathode with loading (total solids) of 7.09 mg/cm.sup.2 Cathode Thickness E/S Composite # % Porosity (μm) (V.sub.CE/mg S) % S-cathode: 40%, ρ.sub.theoretical 1.382, mg S/cm.sup.2 2.841 31 50 119.299 1.809 32 55 130.721 2.211 % S-cathode: 45%, ρ.sub.theoretical 1.436, mg S/cm.sup.2 3.197 33 55 126.426 1.891

Example 3: Electrochemical Characteristics of Porous Cathode Materials

[0137] To evaluate the effect of porous cathodes of the present disclosure on the performance of lithium-sulfur secondary batteries, coin cells can be assembled. A cathode material can be prepared as described in Example 2. For example, a mixture of an active material (e.g., 75 wt % of active material comprising a mixture of ˜80 wt % elemental sulfur and ˜20 wt % polyaniline), conductive carbon additive (e.g., 14 wt % C65®), and binder (e.g., 11 wt % PVDF) can be prepared. These components are combined in a minimal amount of solvent (e.g., NMP) and mixed to form a homogenous slurry. The resulting slurry is applied to carbon coated Al foil, and dried overnight prior to use. Disks are punched from the cathode film (e.g., diameters of 1.27 cm). The final sulfur loading on each cathode is as described in Example 2.

[0138] CR2032 coin cells may be assembled using cathode punches in combination with the following components:

[0139] Anode, e.g., a 0.2 mm thick Li-metal disc with a 9/16″ diameter [0140] Separator, e.g., Celgard-0325

Electrolyte:

[0141] Electrolyte (e.g., 1 M LiTFSI and 0.2 M LiNO.sub.3 in a 1:1 mixture of DME:DOL by volume) is added to each coin cell in a sufficient amount to provide cells with the desired E:S ratios. For example, for an E: S of ˜3, 13 μL of electrolyte may be used for each coin cell.
Electrochemical testing may be conducted at room temperature using a Maccor 4000 battery tester. The cycling protocol may include the following steps:

[0142] 1. An initial rest period of 3 hours

[0143] 2. An initial discharge at a rate of C/20—labeled cycle 0

[0144] 3. A charge/discharge cycle at a rate of C/20—labeled cycle 1

[0145] 4. A charge/discharge cycle at a rate of C/10—labeled cycle 2

[0146] 5. 9 charge/discharge cycles at a rate of C/3

[0147] 6. A charge/discharge cycle at a rate of C/10

[0148] 7. 30 repeats of steps 4 & 5 (300 total cycles)

A 10 minute rest period may be applied after the conclusion of each charge & discharge cycle.

[0149] A suitable upper voltage cutoff bound is 2.8 V vs. Li.sup.+/Li

[0150] A suitable lower voltage cutoff bound is 1.7 V vs. Li.sup.+/Li

[0151] The discharge capacity of an electrochemical cell is measured using the cycling protocol described above.

[0152] While we have described a number of embodiments of this invention, it is apparent that these basic examples may be altered to provide other embodiments that utilize the compounds and methods of this invention. Therefore, it will be appreciated that the scope of this invention is to be defined by the appended claims rather than by the specific embodiments that have been represented by way of examples.