FRIED PLEUROTUS ERYNGII SNACK CHIPS AND METHODS OF FORMING THEM

Abstract

Meat-flavored snack chips formed pleurotus eryngii mushrooms and methods of making them. The pleurotus eryngii mushroom snack chips described herein may have a meat-like flavor rich in umami.

Claims

1. A method of forming crisp mushroom snack chips having a savory flavor, the method comprising: slicing a stipe of a fruiting body of a pleurotus eryngii mushroom transverse to the stipe at 90 +/ 30 relative to the long axis of the stipe to form a plurality of slices having an initial thickness of between 1 mm and 3 mm; soaking the plurality of slices in a solution of maltodextrin until the plurality of slices each contain between 1%-6% of maltodextrin; frying the plurality of slices at ambient pressure in oil at between 145 C. and 163 C. to reduce the water activity of the plurality of slices; and wherein the plurality of slices have a final thickness of between 0.7 mm and 2.2 mm, a diameter of between about 2 cm and 5 cm and a water activity of 0.6 or less.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein slicing the fruiting body comprises removing or omitting any of a cap portion of the fruiting body from the plurality of slices.

3. The method of claim 1, wherein frying comprises frying for between 2 minutes and 6 minutes.

4. The method of claim 1, wherein frying comprises frying in one or more of: corn oil, safflower oil, sunflower oil, soybean oil, cotton seed oil, and sesame seed oil, avocado oil, olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, algae oil, almond oil, organ oil, coconut oil, rice bran oil, flax seed oil, grape seed oil, hemp oil, mustard oil, macadamia oil, palm oil, peanut oil, pumpkin seed oil, soybean oil, tea seed oil, and walnut oil.

5. The method of claim 1, further comprising saturating the plurality of slices in smoke.

6. The method of claim 1, wherein saturating the plurality of slices in the smoke comprises saturating the plurality of slices in a smoke generated at between 90 C. and 150 C.

7. The method of claim 1, further comprising washing and peeling the stipe of the fruiting body prior to slicing.

8. The method of claim 1, further comprising normalizing the plurality of slices prior to slicing them by exposing them to air at between 65 F. and 75 F. for approximately 24 hours and refrigerating for up to 8 days.

9. The method of claim 1, further comprising drying the plurality of sliced after frying them by baking at between 200 F.-350 F.

10. The method of claim 1, further comprising seasoning the plurality of slices.

11. The method of claim 1, further comprising seasoning the plurality of slices with one or more of: maple crystals, sea salt, cheese flavor.

12. A method of forming crisp mushroom snack chips having a savory flavor, the method comprising: normalizing a pleurotus eryngii mushrooms by exposing to air at between 65 F. and 75 F. for approximately 24 hours and refrigerating for up to eight days; slicing a stipe of a fruiting body of the pleurotus eryngii mushroom transverse to the stipe at 90 +/ 30 relative to the long axis of the stipe to form a plurality of slices having an initial thickness of between 1 mm and 3 mm; soaking the plurality of slices in a solution of maltodextrin until the plurality of slices each contain between 1%-6% of maltodextrin; frying the plurality of slices at ambient pressure in oil at between 145 C. and 163 C. to reduce the water activity of the plurality of slices; and seasoning the plurality of slices, wherein the plurality of slices have a final thickness of between 0.7 mm and 2.2 mm and a diameter of between about 2 cm and 5 cm, and a water activity of 0.6 or less.

13. The method of claim 12, further comprising drying the plurality of sliced after frying them by baking at between 200 F.-350 F.

14. A crisp mushroom snack chip having a savory flavor, the chip comprising: a body comprising a fried pleurotus eryngii mushroom sliced transverse to the stipe at 90 +/ 30 relative to the long axis of the stipe having a thickness of between 0.7 mm and 2.2 mm and a diameter of between about 2 cm and 5 cm; wherein the body has between 5%-20% maltodextrin absorbed therein; wherein the chip has less than 35% oil; further, wherein the chip has a water activity of 0.6 or less.

15. The chip of claim 14, wherein the body has between 2%-65 maltodextrin absorbed therein.

16. The chip of claim 14, further comprising a seasoning of maltodeextrin applied to an outer surface of the chip.

17. The chip of claim 16, further wherein the seasoning comprises a smoked maltodextrin powder.

18. The chip of claim 16, wherein the color of the body, in the CIELAB color space, has a lightness value (L*) of greater than 55 and a chroma (a*/b*) of less than about 0.3.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0025] The novel features of the invention are set forth with particularity in the claims that follow. A better understanding of the features and advantages of the present invention will be obtained by reference to the following detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments, in which the principles of the invention are utilized, and the accompanying drawings of which:

[0026] FIG. 1A illustrates an exemplary method of forming the chips described herein.

[0027] FIG. 1B illustrates an exemplary method of forming the chips described herein.

[0028] FIGS. 2 and 3 illustrate exemplary slices of pleurotus eryngii mushrooms that are approximately 4-6 cm diameter (e.g., 4.5 -5.5 cm diameter). These slices are taken transverse to the stipe of a fruiting body of a pleurotus eryngii mushroom at approximately 90 relative to long axis of the stipe. These slices are taken at approximately 2 mm thickness (+/15%, 10%, 5%, etc.). FIG. 2 shows a front view (showing the diameter of the two exemplary oval/rounded chips) and FIG. 3 shows one of these slices from the side, showing the thickness of approximately 2 mm.

[0029] FIG. 4 shows the slices of FIGS. 2 and 3 fried in oil as described herein (e.g., between 145 C. and 190 C.) to form chips.

[0030] FIG. 5 shows the chips of FIG. 4 being de-oiled by blotting on a paper material.

[0031] FIG. 6 shows a comparison between six different sizes of slice transverse to the stipe of a pleurotus eryngii mushroom: 1 mm (A), 2 mm (B), 2.5 mm (C), 3 mm (D), 3.5 mm (E), and 4 mm (F).

[0032] FIG. 7 shows the fried version of chips formed from each of the six different sizes of slices shown in FIG. 6 for comparison: 1 mm (A), 2 mm (B), 2.5 mm (C), 3 mm (D), 3.5 mm (E), and 4 mm (F). These slices were tested for crispiness, taste, mouthfeel, etc.

[0033] FIG. 8 shows a comparison between slices taken at different angles relative to the long axis of stipe of a pleurotus eryngii mushroom for comparison. For example, a section through the stipe may be taken at 90 (A), 45 (B) or 0 (C.). Different thicknesses may be tested. In FIG. 8, the slices were 2 mm thick prior to frying.

[0034] FIG. 9 shows chips formed by frying the slices taken at different angles relative to the long axis of stipe of a pleurotus eryngii mushroom shown in FIG. 8 (e.g., taken at 90 (A), 45 (B) or 0 (C.) relative to the long axis of the stipe). These chips were tested for crispiness, taste, mouthfeel, etc.

[0035] FIGS. 10, 11 and 12 illustrate transverse, 2 mm-thick slices taken through the stipe-only region of a pleurotus eryngii mushroom after slicing but before frying (FIG. 10), after frying (FIG. 11) and after exposing to smoke (post-smoking, FIG. 12).

[0036] FIG. 13 graphically illustrates an example of a comparison of the resulting crispiness of chips formed by frying (at high temperature) between different thicknesses of slices taken transverse to the stipe of a pleurotus eryngii mushroom, similar to the chips shown in FIGS. 6 and 7. In FIG. 13 the relative and subjectively evaluated crispiness is shown on the vertical access, including styrofoamy, crispy and brittle. A desirable amount of crispiness is represented by the dashed horizontal lines.

[0037] FIG. 14 graphically illustrates an example of a comparison of the resulting crispiness of chips formed by frying (at high temperature) between different angles of slices taken relative to the stipe of a pleurotus eryngii mushroom, similar to the chips shown in FIGS. 8-9. In FIG. 14 the relative and subjectively evaluated crispiness is shown on the vertical access, including styrofoamy, crispy and brittle. A desirable amount of crispiness is represented by the dashed horizontal lines.

[0038] FIG. 15 graphically illustrates the effect of smoking time on flavor when smoking chips formed as descried above (e.g., 2 mm thick, sliced transverse to the stipe, fried at high temperature). In FIG. 15 the vertical axis shows the relative and subjectively evaluated flavor axis (extending from unsmoked, smoky, bitter and creosote). The horizontal lines in FIG. 15 illustrate transitions between smoky and bitter and bitter and creosote; an ideal flavor profile is typically highly smoky without being bitter.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0039] Described herein are methods of forming fried, meaty crispy chips from mushrooms. In particular, described herein are fried mushroom chips that may be commercially produced in a consistent, reproducible and cost-effective manner that provides a product having a high quality, pleasing taste, and desired shelf life. Early experiments indicated that the type of mushroom and the location of the slice from which the mushroom was taken were important in achieving consistent flavor and crispiness. Pleurotus eryngii mushrooms, also referred to as king oyster mushrooms, were found to work consistently well. Other types of mushrooms including button mushrooms and shitake mushrooms produced chips that were undesirable, not sufficiently crispy and/or lacking in flavor. Pleurotus eryngii mushrooms typically include an elongate stem region, referred to as the stipe, and end in a relatively small cap. Mushrooms having a diameter of greater than 3 cm (e.g., between 3-7 cm, between 4-6 cm, e.g., between 4.5 and 5.5 cm) were found to have the best results. The large stems of these mushrooms typically include a fibrous structure that extends along the long axis. As will be described in detail below, the angle of slices taken through the stipe (relative to the long axis of the stipe) has a profound effect on the crispiness and flavor profile of the resulting fried chips.

[0040] FIGS. 1A and 1B schematically illustrate methods for making the fried mushroom chips, include slicing the pleurotus eryngii mushroom, optional washing/drying before or after slicing, frying the slices in an oil until the water activity of the slices is below a predetermine threshold, optionally de-oiling the resulting chips, smoking the chips for a controlled brief period (e.g., <10 minutes) and optionally seasoning the chips. However, specific aspects of this general method may be important to control the desired flavor and/or texture, including crispiness.

[0041] For example, FIG. 2 illustrates an example of a 2 mm thick slice taken transversely through a stipe of a pleurotus eryngii mushroom and FIG. 3 shows a side view of an exemplary slice. The stipe region is fibrous and somewhat dense may allow the chip to retain its shape and provide a pleasant texture when frying. In contrast, the cap region may be avoided and excluded from the slices forming the chips, because it may result in a less desirable appearance, texture and flavor. FIG. 4 illustrates the slices of FIGS. 2 and 3 being fried in an oil at between, e.g., 145 C. and 190 C. (e.g., between about 300-350 F.).

[0042] As mentioned above, any desired cooking oil may be used, such as safflower oil. Frying may proceed until the chips are an appropriate water activity (e.g., less than 0.6) and/or color, and/or for a predetermined amount of time (e.g., between 1 minute and 10 minutes, between 2 minutes and 6 minutes, etc.).

[0043] FIGS. 6 and 7 illustrate slices taken transverse to the long axis of the stipe at different thicknesses before and after frying. The different thickness shown include: 1 mm (A), 2 mm (B), 2.5 mm (C), 3 mm (D), 3.5 mm (E) and 4 mm (F). As will be discussed in greater detail below, chips formed of different slice thicknesses and/or slice angles, even when taken just from the stipe region, may have dramatically different flavor and crispness profiles.

[0044] The direction of slicing (e.g., relative to the long axis of the stipe) may be important. For example, as shown in FIGS. 8 and 9, the slices may be made transverse to the long axis, shown in FIG. 8 (A), or any angle between transverse (typically 90 +/ some amount, such as +/30, 25, 20, 15, 10, etc.) and 0 , shown in FIG. 8 (C), including 45, shown in FIG. 8 (B). Surprisingly, slicing too much on the bias negatively affects crispness of chips.

[0045] After frying, the resulting chips may be smoked and/or seasoned. Surprisingly, smoking for a very brief time by saturating in smoke was found to be sufficient to impart a robust and long-lasting pleasant flavor. Unlike typical smoking techniques, which require extended exposure to the smoke (e.g., one or more hours) the methods described herein benefit from smoking for less than 10 minutes (e.g., between 1 minute and 10 minutes, between 1 minutes and 9 minute, between 2 minutes and 10 minutes, between 2 minutes and 8 minutes, between 2 minutes and 7 minutes, between 2 minutes and 6 minutes, etc.).

[0046] FIGS. 10-12 illustrate slices of pleurotus eryngii mushroom pre-frying (show in FIG. 10), immediately after frying (shown in FIG. 11), and immediately after brief (<10 min) smoking and subsequent seasoning. Any appropriate seasoning mix may be used, for example, sea salt, maple crystals, sea salt and maple crystals, etc. For example, in some variations a ratio of 4:1 (sea salt: maple crystals) may be used, e.g., a ratio of sea salt to maple crystals of between 2:1 and 6:1. Any other flavors may be used, and smoking may be an optional step.

[0047] As mentioned, the chips may be formed to have a relatively low water activity (w.sub.a). For example the water activity may be below 0.85, which is considered to be a shelf stable meat product by the Food Safety and Inspection Service, and is a requirement for shelf stability (USDA). The methods described herein may provide a water activity that is 0.6 or lower, which provides an extended shelf life for such low moisture foods. See, e.g., http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Food/GuidanceRegulation/FSMA/UCM517399.pdf, which describes water activity, including testing and guidance for stability.

[0048] When smoking the chips described herein, any appropriate method of smoking may be used, particularly those in which the gaseous smoke saturates the fried chips for a predetermined period of time not exceeding 10 minutes. Any type of smoke may be used, including in particular smoke (typically hot smoke) is formed by heating a wood such as cherry, hickory, apple, etc. Smoking the chips as described herein may enhance the meaty flavor of the chips. The smoke may be hot, e.g., formed at a temperature of between 200 degrees F. to 260 degrees F. (e.g., between 93 degrees C. to 127 degrees C.). The chips may be saturated for a period of between 1 minutes and 10 minutes (e.g., between 1 minute and 9 minutes, between 1 min and 8 minutes, etc.).

[0049] Typically, the finished chip dimensions may have a thickness that is between about 0.75mm-2mm (e.g. about 1mm-1.5mm) and a diameter of between about 2cm-4.5cm (e.g., between about 3cm-3.5 cm). This may be in contrast to pre-frying chip dimensions such as a thickness of between about 1mm-3mm (e.g., approximately 2mm) and a diameter of between about 4cm-7cm (e.g., between about 5mm-6mm).

[0050] Another factor that may affect the overall crispness and flavor of the chip is the relative condition of the starting mushrooms. Typically, fresher mushrooms are believed to work best, although in some cases it may be difficult to coordinate the relative freshness of the mushrooms, particularly in cases where the mushrooms have been pre-treated with a modified atmosphere packaging (MAP). Mushrooms that are greater than a week old (without being treated by, e.g., a modified atmosphere) may produce a chip having a mealy texture, a color that is much darker and a less pleasant flavor. Freshness may mean that the mushroom is used within about one week (e.g., with about 5 days, within about 6 days, within about 7 days, within about 8 days, within about 9 days, within about 10 days, within about 11 days, within about 12 days, within about 13 days, within about 14 days, within about 15 days, within about 16 days, within about, 17 days, within about 3 weeks, within about 3.5 weeks, etc.). Further, in instances where the mushrooms have been picked and packaged in a modified atmosphere (as described in in greater detail below), the above discussion of freshness may not apply; in some cases, after exposure to a modified atmosphere (i.e., exposure of more than a day or two) it may be beneficial to provide a delay time of more than 24 hours, more than 36 hours, more than 48 hours, more than 60 hours, more than 72 hours, etc. from removing the mushrooms from the modified atmosphere before processing them as described herein; processing before this delay period may result in a less desirable texture (e.g., a mealy texture) and flavor (e.g., a more mushroomy flavor). Similarly, it may be beneficial to delay for 1 or more days (e.g., 1.5 days, 2 days, 2.5 days, 3 days, etc.) before processing the mushrooms as described herein. For both fresh and MAP exposed mushrooms, the delay period may help stabilize the mushrooms prior to processing, providing a consistent flavor, color and texture; mushrooms that are fresh or previously exposed to MAP that are processed sooner (e.g., within 1-2 days) may be more variable in flavor and texture; alternatively mushrooms processed after too long of delay, e.g., >7 days, >8 days, >9 days, >10 days, >11 days, >14 days, >15 days, etc. Thus, there may be an ideal range of times from picking (after an appropriate delay period but prior to a freshness limiting period) or from opening a package including a modified atmosphere.

[0051] Any of the methods described herein may include one or more optional manufacturing steps including de-oiling peeling the mushrooms.

[0052] In any of the variations described herein, even if MAP has not been used, the mushrooms may be pretreated to normalize them, which may help with consistency of flavor and product. For example, mushrooms may be exposed to air (e.g., sealed boxes may be opened, and any plastic bag/covering may be cut, exposing them to the air) and stored at approximately room temperature (e.g., about 70 degrees F./21 C.) for between about 1-36 hours (e.g., about 24 hours). They may then be stored in a cooler storage environment, including refrigerated, at a lower temperature (e.g., between about 4 C.-10 C., e.g., about 4 C.) for up to another 7-8 days before use (e.g., up to about 3-5 days in fridge). Without this additional normalization step, fried chips made from the mushrooms may be very dark and too hard, with an undesirable texture and mouthfeel. When pretreated as described above, the fried chips typically have an appealing golden-brown color and will have a crispy, desirable texture and mouthfeel.

[0053] In any of the variations described herein, it may be desirable to reduce the total fat content of the final chips to less than 40%. Typically, chips made by simply slicing and frying will have a fat content of greater than about 45% (e.g., between 50%-60%). This high fat content may be undesirable. Thus, described herein are mushroom chips formed as described that may have a fat content of 40% or less (e.g., 35% or less, 34% or less, 33% or less, 32% or less, 31% or less, 30% or less, etc.). In particular described herein are methods for

[0054] As mentioned above, in some variations it may be important to modify the sliced mushrooms by incorporating (e.g., by soaking) maltodextrin, which may act as a displacing agent when the mushroom is later fried, displacing fat that would otherwise be absorbed into the mushroom. Thus, any of the methods described herein may include a soaking step prior to frying the mushrooms (and typically, but not necessarily, after slicing), in which a solution including the displacing agent, e.g., maltodextrin, is incorporated into the chips to a predetermined level (e.g., typically between 1%-5% of the chip).

[0055] For example, any of these methods may include a soaking step as part of the manufacturing process. In the absence of a displacing agent, the final chips is typically between 50.0%-60.0% fat. In general, it is desirable to produce a chip having a maximum fat content of approximately 36.0% or less. The fat content of the final chip may be adjusted by soaking the mushrooms (e.g., sliced mushrooms, sliced as described herein) in a fat-displacing agent to achieve an impregnation of the displacing agent of between about 2%-10% (e.g., between about 2%-5%, etc.) prior to frying. Without being bound by a potential theory soaking in a displacing agent (e.g., a polysaccharide and in particular maltodextrin) may achieve this by absorbing the water soluble displacing agent into the mushroom slices. When the mushroom slices are subsequently fried, the water cooks out, but the mushrooms hold onto the majority of the soluble displacing agent; the soluble powder may take up space in the mushroom that would otherwise be taken up by oil, so the resulting fat percentage is lower.

[0056] The actual displacing agent may be important, as not all displacing agents will work, particularly with the pleurotus eryngii mushrooms described herein. Maltodextrin in particular works well when frying in air (e.g., ambient frying, without requiring a vacuum). Ambient frying is particularly useful, as it does not require the additional expense and risk associated with other cooking (e.g., vacuum frying) methods. Other types of polysaccharides may work, however, not all polysaccharides, starches or sugars work as well as maltodextrin. For example, corn syrup, was inferior to maltodextrin (e.g., resulting in turning the chips very dark and burning/scorching them when fried). Other possible displacing agents such as Vitafiber (Isomaltooligosaccharide), a prebiotic fiber sweetener very low in sugar, was examined, but also did not work. Sugar alcohols such as xylitol and sorbitol, resulted in a chip having an unpleasant mouthfeel and texture. In addition, other starches (e.g., arrowroot and a modified wheat flour), also failed to displace oils during frying, as did soy protein; Xanthan gum was also less successful (and resulted in a chip having a strange mouth feel). In contrast, maltodextrin is highly soluble, and a solution of maltodextrin may be reused multiple times, enhancing ease of manufacturing. The maltodextrin produced a chip that did not burn and had a pleasant golden-brown color when fried in ambient conditions at less than 315 F. For example, sliced mushrooms (e.g., approximately 1mm thickness) were soaked in a solution of maltodextrin and water. Either 10DE tapioca and/or 10DE corn maltodextrin was used, with similar, successful results. The solution may have a range of between about 5.0%-20.0% maltodextrin, e.g., between about 10.0%-15.0% maltodextrin. The soaking times between about 2 minutes-20 minutes (at room temperature), e.g., between about 5 minutes-10 minutes, were successful. In some variations, the mushroom slices were soaked for about 7 minutes in a 10% maltodextrin solution. Alternatively a 15% maltodextrin solution may be used, soaking for 5 minutes. Soaking temperature may be between 20 C.-50 C. In some variations, the mushrooms may be allowed to rest, e.g., for between 1-5 minutes (e.g., 3 minutes) after they soak and before frying, to allow any surface solution to soak into the mushrooms. In general, it may be desirable to treat the sliced mushrooms with the maltodextrin so that the range of maltodextrin pickup (absorption into the mushrooms) is between about 1% and 10% (e.g., between about 2%-6%, between about 3.0%-4.5%, between 1%-5%, etc.). In some variations, the method may include a 7 minute soak in 10% maltodextrin, which may result in an the mushrooms having between 3.25%-4.0% maltodextrin following the soaking. The percentage of the maltodextrin in the chip after frying may be slightly higher, as the overall volume of the chip is reduced; for example, if the raw sliced mushroom takes up between 1%-5%, then the fried chip will have between about 8%-16%. For example, the fried chip may have a percent of maltodextrin of between about 3% and 22%, between about 5% and 20%, between about 6% and 18%, between about 4% and 21%, including preferably between about 5% and 20%.

[0057] The sliced mushrooms including maltodextrin may then be fried, as described above. For example the frying oil may be between 300 F.-325 F. (e.g., between 149 C.-163 C.). In some variations the frying temperature may be between 300 F.-315 F. (e.g., between 149 C.-157.2 C.).

[0058] As mentioned, any of the methods described herein (see, e.g., FIG. 1B) may also include drying, e.g., by baking, the chips after frying. Baking after frying may reduce the time that the chips spend in the fryer, allowing the chips to be finished in the oven, which may further reduce the ultimate fat percentage, and may aid in producing a consistent and uniform color and appearance. For example, chips may be baked following frying at a temperature range in the oven of between about 200 F.-350 F. (e.g., 93.3 C.-176.7 C.), for between about 6 minutes-20 minutes.

[0059] In any of the variations described herein a smoked maltodextrin powder (which may result in a flavor very similar to the smoked chips) may be used instead of smoking the chips. In some variations the smoked maltodextrin powder may be applied to the chips topically, along with the other seasonings, after they are fried.

[0060] The color of the final chip product is of particular interest in providing a viable product. Although in some instances the color may be unrelated to the nutritional value and/or the taste, color has been shown to be highly important in the perceptual experience of the consumer. As such, the methods and products (chips) described herein may be specifically directed to produce a mushroom chip that has a range of color values. For example, the color of the chips may be light brown to golden brown, and may avoid or minimize darker brown/blackened chips. Maltodextrin in particular, compared to other agents, when used as described above, produces a chip that had a pleasant golden-brown color when fried at less than 315 F. (e.g., between 300-315 F.); at temperatures above 315 degrees F., depending on how long the mushrooms fry, the chips can darken unfavorably and begin to taste a little burnt.

[0061] Color may be measured by spectral analysis of the chips. For example, spectrophotometers may be used for precise color measurements. The color of the fried chips may be measured, for example using a ratio of absorbance values through spectral analysis. These measurements may be used for evaluation using a method such as the Hue Index, which usually ranges from 3.4 (very dark walnut brown) to 7.5 (amber red brown) for caramel colors (0.1% solution). For example, the chips described herein may have a hue (or hue index) corresponding to yellowish green (or just yellow) through orange. This method has various uses, and is heavily relied upon for the measurement of tea products and beer brewing color variations as well.

[0062] Alternatively or additionally, colorimetry may be used for color measurement. In colorimetry, the quantification of color is based on the three-component theory, looking at the three primary colors (red, green, and blue), and that all colors are seen as mixtures of these primaries. In colorimetry, these components are referred to as X-Y-Z coordinates. Colorimeters may employ at least three photocells as receptors to see color in much the same way as the human eye. Spectrophotometry may uses many more sensors (e.g., 40 or more in some spectrophotometers) to separate a beam of reflected or transmitted light into its component wavelengths. It measures the spectral reflectance of an object at each wavelength on the visible spectrum continuum. Colorimeters are generally used in production and quality control applications. If a CIELAB, L*a*b* coordinate system is used, then the methods and products described herein (e.g., chips) may be centered around the yellow/orange/red range (e.g., b>0.3,0.2<a<0.3). In some variations, the L* a* b* color space for the mushroom chips may be configured to have a lightness (L*) of greater than 55 (e.g., between about 55 to 80, between about 50 to 85, between about 60 to 80, between about 50 to 70, greater than 50, greater than 60, etc.), with a chroma value (a*/b*) of less than about 0.3 (e.g., between about 0.2 to 0.3, 0.0 to 0.3, less than 0.3, less than 0.275, less than 0.25, less than 0.2, less than 0.175, less than 0.15, less than 0.1, etc.).

EXAMPLE 1

[0063] FIG. 1A illustrates an exemplary method of making a chip having a meat flavor, as described herein. A similar alternative method is described below. Asterisks (*) indicate optional steps that may or may not be included either individually or collectively.

[0064] 1.) *Washing (and Peeling)

[0065] 2.) Slicing

[0066] 3.) *Blanching

[0067] 4.) *Rinsing and Cooling

[0068] 5.) *Dehydrating

[0069] 6.) Frying

[0070] 7.) *De-Oiling

[0071] 8.) *Seasoning

[0072] 9.) *Packaging

[0073] Flavors that may be achieved with these chips may include bacon flavors including, for example, original bacon flavor, smoked bacon flavor, cherry bacon flavor, etc. In this example the seasoning may include: sea salt and maple crystals. The chips may be smoked as described herein using a cherrywood. Another flavor may include bacon cheddar; the seasoning may include: sea salt, maple crystals, natural cheddar cheese flavor, smoked with cherrywood. Another flavor is hickory bacon, which may include seasoning such as: sea salt and maple crystals, and may be smoked with Hickorywood. Another flavor may include apple bacon which may be achieved by seasoning the fried chips with sea salt and maple crystals following a brief smoking with Applewood. Other Meat Flavors may include KC BBQ, seasoning the chips with sea salt, maple crystals, BBQ herb & spice blend, smoked with Hickorywood, a fried chicken flavor chip, seasoned with sea salt, natural chicken flavor, herb & spice blend (without smoking), and an Italian sausage flavor chip, seasoned with sea salt, natural pork flavor, herb & spice blend (possibly smoked with cherry, hickory, or apple or possibly without smoking).

[0074] Herbs and spices that may be used for flavors may include one or more of: allspice, anise seed, annatto seed, asafoetida, bay leaf, celery salt, celery, seed, chili powder, curry powder, chives, basil leaf, cardamom, cayenne pepper, chipotle pepper, cilantro leaf, cinnamon, cloves, coriander seed, cumin seed, dill weed, fennel seed, fenugreek seed, five spice powder, garam masala, garlic powder/flakes/granules/salt/minced, ginger root, grains of paradise, green bell pepper, gumbo file powder, harissa, jalapeno chili, juniper berry, lemon peel, mace, marjoram leaf, mustard powder, mustard seed, onion powder/flakes/granules/salt/minced, orange peel, oregano leaf, nutmeg, paprika, parsley leaf, (ground) pepper (e.g., black, white, pink, red, green, etc.), peppercorn (e.g., black, white, pink, red, green, etc.), poppy seed, red bell pepper, rosemary leaf, saffron, sage leaf, salt, savory leaf, sesame seed, (black) sesame seed, star anise, szechuan peppercorn, tarragon leaf, thyme leaf, tomato powder, vegetarian beef flavor, vegetarian cheese flavor, vegetarian chicken flavor, vegetarian ham flavor, vegetarian lamb flavor, vegetarian pork flavor, vegetarian turkey flavor, and smoke powders (e.g., apple smoke powder, cherry smoke powder, hickory smoke powder, liquid smoke, and mesquite smoke powder).

[0075] Spices (including salts) may be added before or after smoking in variations that are smoked. For example, spices (e.g., sea salt and maple crystals) may be added before smoking.

[0076] In this example, the frying step may be performed using canola or safflower oil as the fryer oil. Alternatively, a sunflower/safflower blend may be used. Other variations may include coconut oil and algae oil or any other oil or mixture of oils, not limited to these. The frying temperature may be, e.g., between 300 F. and 360 F. (e.g., between 300-325 F., etc.) which may provide the best blend of appearance, flavor and crispiness. The frying time may vary, e.g., between 2 minutes and 10 minutes (e.g., between 4 -8 minutes, etc.). In many of the examples described herein the chips are not fried under pressure.

[0077] In variations in which the chips are smoked, smoking may be performed for a predetermined time period during which the chips are surrounded (saturated) by the appropriate smoke. The duration of smoking may be important in maintaining a meat-like flavor that is pleasant but not overpowering. For example, if the smoking step proceeds for too long (e.g., >10 minutes), the flavor of the chips may be very unpleasant (e.g., reminiscent of creosote, bitter). As used herein saturation with the smoke typically refers to surrounding the chips with smoke for the smoking time. This may be accomplished using a commercial smoking container or smoker. For example, a Masterbuilt smoker or a Cookshack smoker (Smokette Elite Model SM025 Electric Smoker Oven) may be used, for example, by setting the smoker temperature to 260 degrees F. and preheat the smoker until the temperature readout is 260 degrees F. For example, the smokehouse of the smoker may be loaded with, e.g., cup, of wood chips (e.g., Cherrywood, Hickorywood, Applewood, etc.) and allowing the smoker temperature to return to 260 degrees F. and watch the smoke coming out of the chimney until it is coming out in a steady stream (8-12 minutes from when the wood chips are added). The fried chips may then be placed (in this example, they have already been rinsed, sliced, fried, de-oiled and seasoned) on a perforated tray and put them in the smoker. The chips smoke from 1-8 minutes. The chips may then be removed from the smoker and air dried for 5-10 minutes and then packaged in airtight plastic containers.

[0078] The chips may be de-oiled following frying by any appropriate method, including by tossing them on an absorbent material (e.g., a paper plate) and/or lined with an absorbent material (such as a paper towel) frying them. Alternatively or additionally a de-oiling machine may be used; the de-oiling machine may use centrifugal force to separate excess oil on the chips, as the chips are essentially spun in a large colander inside a chamber. When the colander spins, the excess oil goes through the holes in the colander into the outer chamber, where it can be drained off from a spigot at the bottom of the chamber).

[0079] A chip-preparing method such described above was used to examine the parameters, particularly with respect to slice thickness, slice cutting angle relative to the long axis of the stipe, smoking time, and the like. FIGS. 13, 14 and 15 illustrate the results of these preliminary tests.

[0080] For example in FIG. 13, the effect of different slice thicknesses on crispness is shown. Table 1, below shows a similar comparison, including an indication of the effect of the thickness on flavor as well.

TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Qualitative comparison of chip thickness Transverse slice Fry Time Thickness (325 F.) Observation 1 mm 2:00 good crispiness, good density/mouthfeel, good color (homogenous) but a little light 2 mm 2:45 best crispiness, good density/mouthfeel, good color (homogenous) 2.5 mm 3:30 crispiness still acceptable, acceptable density/ mouthfeel, good color (homogenous) 3 mm 4:30 starting to loose crispiness - slightly crumbly, density/mouthfeel getting too light and styrofoamy, color too dark and not homogenous 3.5 mm 5:30 same as 3 mm, with each aspect getting a little worse, starting to taste mushroomy 4 mm all aspects progressively worse than 3.5 mm, taste is very mushroomy

[0081] As shown in both FIG. 13 and Table 1, the optimal range of thicknesses, particularly for transverse slices, e.g., slices taken at 90 +/ 30 (and particularly +/ 15) relative to the long axis of the stipe, have a far superior crispiness, flavor and mouth-feel. Outside of this range (e.g., >3 mm thick), the crispiness and flavor are progressively worse.

[0082] FIG. 14 and Table 2, below show a similar effect on the sliced angle relative to the long axis of the mushroom. As shown, sections that are not transverse to the long axis (e.g., beyond about +/ 30 degrees) also do not have sufficient crispness and flavor profiles, with slices taken in the long axis (with the grain at 0) being the least desirable.

TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 Comparison of Bias Cut (all cut to a thickness of 2 mm) Cut Fry Time (325 F.) Observation 90 degrees 2:45 perfect balance of color, appearance, flavor, crispiness, good density/mouthfeel 45 degrees 3:00 color, appearance and flavor good. A little too light, not crispy enough, density/mouthfeel not bad but too light with the grain 6:00 starting to loose crispiness - slightly crumbly density/mouthfeel too light and styrofoamy, color too dark and not homogenous

[0083] In these examples, the range of frying time was between about 3-6 minutes. The optimal cut (2mm, 90 degree angle) took about 3 minutes and 30 seconds. The seasoning range used was about 2-3% by weight of the raw chips (prior to frying), and the optimal range for the bacon flavor was found to be about 2.8% (seasoning was approximately 4:1, sea salt : maple crystals).

[0084] Similarly, FIG. 15 illustrates the ranges of smoking time for chips (2 mm diameter, 90 cut angle relative to the stipe long axis). In this example, the smoker used is a Cookshack smoker and optimal smoke conditions were found to be 3 minutes at 260 F. (Cherrywood chips). Thus, a range of between about 2 minutes to 6 minutes (e.g., 2 minutes to 4.5 minutes, etc.) may provide a good, consistent smoke flavor without over smoking (resulting in the overly bitter/creosote flavor).

EXAMPLE 2

[0085] FIG. 1A illustrates another variation of a method of making mushroom chips as described herein. In FIG. 1A, the method may include the steps of pre-treating (e.g., normalizing) the uncut mushrooms by exposing to air at room temperature for a minimum amount of time (e.g., approximately 24 hours), followed by an optional refrigeration period (e.g., for up to 8 days, e.g., 3-5 days) 121. The mushrooms may then be washed and sliced, e.g., as described above. For example, the stipe of the fruiting body of the pleuortus erynagii mushrooms may be sliced transversely to 1-3 mm thicknesses (e.g., approximately 1 mm) 122. A fat displacing agent (and particularly maltodextrin) may be absorbed into the thickness of the sliced mushroom, e.g., by soaking in a maltodextrin solution (e.g., 5%-30% maltodextrin in aqueous solution) until the slice includes between 1%-7% maltodextrin incorporated therein (e.g., between 2%-5%, etc.) 123. Thereafter, the sliced with the absorbed maltodextrin may be fried in oil (e.g., at between 300 F.-325 F.) until the water activity of the chips is 0.6 or less, leaving greater than 1% maltodextrin (e.g., between 1%-10%) within each chip 127. The chips may optionally be baked (e.g., dried/baked) 129; if a drying/baking step is included, the chips may be removed from the frying before the water activity is 0.6 or less, and may be dried by baking (e.g., between 200 F.-350 F.) until the water activity is 0.6 or less 129. The chips may also be further de-oiled 131 (e.g., by spinning, blotting, etc.). The slices may then be seasoned and/or smoked 133, and packaged.

[0086] The use of maltodextrin as a fat displacing or blocking agent during frying was examined and compared to chips made in the same manner, but without using absorbed maltodextrin. Chips manufactured as described above, but without absorbing maltodextrin prior to frying had a final percentage of oil of between 50%-60%, even after a de-oiling step was performed. Laboratory testing showed that the use of various displacement/blocking agents, and in particular maltodextrin as described above, reduced the final percentage of oil substantially, e.g., to less than 40% (e.g., less than 35%). For example, chips manufactured as described in FIG. 1B in which the mushrooms were normalized, sliced and soaked for 7 minutes in 10% maltodextrin solution, fried at 325 F. and seasoned, were found to have approximately 32.53% fat. Mushrooms soaked for 10 minutes in a 10% maltodextrin solution, fried at 325 F. and seasoned had approximately 30.50% fat. A similar trend was observed for fat percentage when soaking for different times and frying at different temperatures. For example, soaking for 3 minutes in 10% maltodextrin and frying at 310 F. (no seasoning) had a fat content of approximately 45.14%; soaking for 5 minutes in 10% maltodextrin and frying at 303 F. (no seasoning) had a fat content of approximately 42.30%; soaking for 7 minutes in 10% maltodextrin and frying at 303 F. (no seasoning) had a fat content of approximately 39.64%. When the frying time was reduced but a drying/baking step was added, the percentage of fat also decreased. For example, soaking mushroom slices for 7 minutes in a 10% maltodextrin solution and frying at 305 F. (with a belt speed of 100, compared to the previous example in which belt speed was 75), followed by drying/baking for 6 min. at 250 F. had a fat content of approximately 38.29%; soaking mushroom slices for 7 minutes in a 10% maltodextrin solution and frying at 300 F. (with a belt speed of 150), followed by drying/baking for 6 min. at 300 F. had a fat content of approximately 31.28%.

Additional Treatments

[0087] As mentioned herein, during any of the method for processing described herein, the sliced pleurotus eryngii may be blanched and dried (e.g., dehydrated). Blanching may include dipping, spraying, or otherwise exposing the pleurotus eryngii to boiling water, and removal after a brief, timed interval. The pleurotus eryngii may then be cooled and/or dehydrated (e.g., by plunging into iced water or placing under cold running water) to halt the cooking process. The blanching process may be performed at between a temperature of 70 C.-100 C. for any appropriate time, such as between 5 seconds and 5 minutes (e.g., between 5-30 seconds, between 5-20 seconds, between 5 and 12 seconds, etc.). As mentioned, blanching may be performed or not performed on the sliced pleurotus eryngii.

[0088] Following blanching, the pleurotus eryngii slices may be dried or dehydrated. For example, steps similar to the de-oiling steps described herein (e.g., blotting and/or centrifugation) may be used. Alternatively or additionally, compressed air (e.g., an air knife) may be used to apply a blast of air to remove excess water after the blanching process. During a dehydration/drying step, the slices may be exposed to a relatively high heat (e.g., 90 C.-110 C., e.g., approximately 200 F.-225 F.) for a few minutes, such as between 1-10 minutes, between 2-7 minutes, between 3-5 min, etc.

[0089] Any of the methods described herein may also or alternatively include a step of peeling and/or washing the pleurotus eryngii. For example, the pleurotus eryngii may be washed and/or peeled prior to slicing (and/or after slicing), In some variations, the pleurotus eryngii (or slices prepared as described above) may be rinsed and dried (e.g., by patting them dry).

Exposure to Modified Atmosphere

[0090] In some variations the methods and apparatuses described herein are optimized or normalized for the use of mushrooms that have been exposed or held in a modified atmosphere for greater than a predetermined time period (e.g., greater than 2 hours, 4 hours, 8 hours, 10 hours, 12 hours, 14 hours, 16 hours, 20 hours, 24 hours, etc.). The modified atmosphere may be, e.g., an environment that has a typically reduced oxygen level compared to air (e.g., less than <20% Oxygen, less than 19% Oxygen, less than 18% Oxygen, less than 17% Oxygen, less than 16% Oxygen, less than 15% Oxygen, less than 14% Oxygen, less than 13% Oxygen, less than 12% Oxygen, less than 11% Oxygen, less than 10% Oxygen, etc. Alternatively or additionally, the modified atmosphere may have a greater CO.sub.2 level compared to air (e.g., and greater than 1% CO.sub.2, greater than 1.5% CO.sub.2, greater than 2% CO.sub.2, greater than 2.5% CO.sub.2, greater than 3% CO.sub.2, greater than 3.5% CO.sub.2, greater than 5% CO.sub.2, greater than 5% CO.sub.2, greater than 6% CO.sub.2, greater than 7% CO.sub.2, greater than 8% CO.sub.2, greater than 9% CO.sub.2, greater than 10% CO.sub.2, etc.). This modified atmosphere may be passively achieved and/or actively achieved. For example, the modified atmosphere may be achieved by packaging in a membrane having a higher permeability for Oxygen than CO.sub.2, or vice versa.

[0091] In any of these variations, the mushrooms may be exposed to a coating agent, such as, for example a coating of chitosan and/or CaCl.sub.12 prior to exposure to the modified atmosphere. For example, the mushrooms (pleurotus eryngii mushrooms) may be coated with a coating solution prepared by dissolving (0.1% to 2%, e.g., 0.3%) chitosan, e.g., in an acetic acid solution (e.g., 0.5% acetic acid solution), and/or dissolving 0.5% to 5% (e.g., 2.0%) calcium chloride in deionized water. The pH value of solution (e.g., the chitosan solution) may be adjusted to pH 5.0 with NaOH solution. The pleurotus eryngii mushrooms may be spray-coated with the solution and allowed to dry (e.g., using a fan at ambient temperature).

[0092] Pre-treatment or exposure of the pleurotus eryngii to a modified (e.g., reduced oxygen, such as <20%) for greater than 12 hours (e.g., 24 hours) has a substantial impact on the texture and crispness of the chips formed as described herein. For example, a comparison between fresh pleurotus eryngii, which were not exposed to a modified atmosphere within 24 hours of slicing and frying, as described above (e.g., slicing to approximately 2 mm thickness, transverse to the long axis of the stipe of the fruiting body) and mushrooms that were exposed to a modified atmosphere having less than 20% Oxygen for greater than 12 hours before preparation shows a significant difference in the crispiness and texture of the resulting chips. In this experiment, pleurotus eryngii were prepared from mushrooms stored in a modified atmosphere (e.g., low O.sub.2) for more than 12 hours and from mushrooms that were not stored in a modified atmosphere or that were stored for less than 6 hours within 24 hours of slicing and preparation. Chips formed as described herein using pleurotus eryngii that were not held at a modified atmosphere for more than 12 hours did not have adequate crispness or mouth feel, and less than homogenous color. (subjectively described as pringley), compared to those that were formed from pleurotus eryngii that were exposed to the modified atmosphere for greater than 12 hours within 24 hours of use. This was very surprising, because the raw mushrooms in both cases were otherwise indistinguishable. The exposure (e.g., the longer exposure) to the modified atmosphere may therefore alter the texture of the resulting chip.

[0093] Typically a modified atmosphere refers to an atmosphere that is not air (e.g., 21% 02; 0.038% CO.sub.2, 78% N.sub.2) but may consist of a lowered level of O.sub.2 and in some variations a heightened level of CO.sub.2. As mentioned, the modified atmosphere may be applied by active (e.g., gas-flushing and/or compensated vacuum) or by passive methods. In gas-flushing the desired gas mixture is instilled in quantity into the packaging, pushing out the air, whereas in compensated vacuum the air is removed and the desired gas mixture then instilled.

[0094] Any of the methods described herein may include exposing the pleurotus eryngii prior to or after slicing the chips as described herein to an acid solution (e.g., citric acid solution). For example, any of these methods may include exposure to a citric acid solution between about 0.1%-5% citric acid (e.g., greater than 0.1%, greater than 1%, greater than 5%, etc.).

EXAMPLE 3

[0095] Another example of a method for forming meat-flavored chips that are sufficiently crisp (not chewy or styrofoamy) and flavored (not bitter, not mushroomy) is provided below. In this example, which tracks FIG. 1A (but may also apply to the method shown in FIG. 1B), the mushrooms are selected by diameter. The range is roughly 4cm-7cm, with 5cm-6cm being the ideal diameter. Mushrooms outside of that range may be saved for other uses. The mushrooms may be rinsed and patted dry. The cap of the mushroom is cut off transverse to the long axis off the stem and saved for other uses. The mushrooms are sliced 101 on a meat slicer, starting from the cap end. A thickness of 1mm-3mm is acceptable, e.g. 2mm. There is usually a little bit of mushroom at the end that is unusable and is saved for other uses. Slices may optionally be blanched 103 and dried 105. As mentioned above, the mushrooms may then be treated with a fat displacing/blocking agent (e.g., maltodextrin).

[0096] The sliced mushrooms are then fried 107 in oil, such as canola oil (other oils that have yielded good results are safflower oil, refined coconut oil and a sunflower/safflower blend). The optimal temperature for frying in this example is 325 degrees F. (resulting in a good balance of appearance, flavor and crispiness), although a range of 300 -360 degrees F. has yielded acceptable results. The chips are turned halfway through the frying and fried until all of the water has visibly cooked out (e.g., 4-8 minutes). The chips may be de-oiled 109, e.g., by tossing them on a plate lined with an absorbent material (e.g., porous material, such as filter paper, etc.) and may be tossed with seasoning 113. The seasoning is this example is a blend of sea salt and maple crystals at a ratio of 4:1 (sea salt:maple crystals). Alternatively or additionally, the chips may be seasoned later in the process (e.g., after smoking).

[0097] The chips may be smoked 111. The smoker temperature is set to 260 degrees F. and preheated until the temperature is approximately 260 degrees F. The smokehouse is loaded with cup of wood chips (e.g., Cherrywood, Hickorywood, Applewood, etc.). The smoker temperature is allowed to return to 260 degrees F. smoke is emitted (e.g., out of the chimney) until it is coming out in a steady stream (typically 8-12 minutes from when the wood chips are added in the setup described herein). The fried chips are placed on a perforated tray and put them in the smoker. The chips smoke from 2-8 minutes, then removed from the smoker and air dried for 5-10 minutes. Thereafter, the chips may be packaged in airtight container.

[0098] Any of the methods described herein may be implemented as software, hardware or firmware, and may be described as a non-transitory computer-readable storage medium storing a set of instructions capable of being executed by a processor (e.g., computer, tablet, smartphone, etc.), that when executed by the processor causes the processor to control perform any of the steps, including but not limited to: displaying, communicating with the user, analyzing, modifying parameters (including timing, frequency, intensity, etc.), determining, alerting, or the like.

[0099] When a feature or element is herein referred to as being on another feature or element, it can be directly on the other feature or element or intervening features and/or elements may also be present. In contrast, when a feature or element is referred to as being directly on another feature or element, there are no intervening features or elements present. It will also be understood that, when a feature or element is referred to as being connected, attached or coupled to another feature or element, it can be directly connected, attached or coupled to the other feature or element or intervening features or elements may be present. In contrast, when a feature or element is referred to as being directly connected, directly attached or directly coupled to another feature or element, there are no intervening features or elements present. Although described or shown with respect to one embodiment, the features and elements so described or shown can apply to other embodiments. It will also be appreciated by those of skill in the art that references to a structure or feature that is disposed adjacent another feature may have portions that overlap or underlie the adjacent feature.

[0100] Terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting of the invention. For example, as used herein, the singular forms a, an and the are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. It will be further understood that the terms comprises and/or comprising, when used in this specification, specify the presence of stated features, steps, operations, elements, and/or components, but do not preclude the presence or addition of one or more other features, steps, operations, elements, components, and/or groups thereof. As used herein, the term and/or includes any and all combinations of one or more of the associated listed items and may be abbreviated as /.

[0101] Spatially relative terms, such as under, below, lower, over, upper and the like, may be used herein for ease of description to describe one element or feature's relationship to another element(s) or feature(s) as illustrated in the figures. It will be understood that the spatially relative terms are intended to encompass different orientations of the device in use or operation in addition to the orientation depicted in the figures. For example, if a device in the figures is inverted, elements described as under or beneath other elements or features would then be oriented over the other elements or features. Thus, the exemplary term under can encompass both an orientation of over and under. The device may be otherwise oriented (rotated 90 degrees or at other orientations) and the spatially relative descriptors used herein interpreted accordingly. Similarly, the terms upwardly, downwardly, vertical, horizontal and the like are used herein for the purpose of explanation only unless specifically indicated otherwise.

[0102] Although the terms first and second may be used herein to describe various features/elements (including steps), these features/elements should not be limited by these terms, unless the context indicates otherwise. These terms may be used to distinguish one feature/element from another feature/element. Thus, a first feature/element discussed below could be termed a second feature/element, and similarly, a second feature/element discussed below could be termed a first feature/element without departing from the teachings of the present invention.

[0103] Throughout this specification and the claims which follow, unless the context requires otherwise, the word comprise, and variations such as comprises and comprising means various components can be co-jointly employed in the methods and articles (e.g., compositions and apparatuses including device and methods). For example, the term comprising will be understood to imply the inclusion of any stated elements or steps but not the exclusion of any other elements or steps.

[0104] In general, any of the apparatuses and methods described herein should be understood to be inclusive, but all or a sub-set of the components and/or steps may alternatively be exclusive, and may be expressed as consisting of or alternatively consisting essentially of the various components, steps, sub-components or sub-steps.

[0105] As used herein in the specification and claims, including as used in the examples and unless otherwise expressly specified, all numbers may be read as if prefaced by the word about or approximately, even if the term does not expressly appear. The phrase about or approximately may be used when describing magnitude and/or position to indicate that the value and/or position described is within a reasonable expected range of values and/or positions. For example, a numeric value may have a value that is +/ 0.1% of the stated value (or range of values), +/ 1% of the stated value (or range of values), +/ 2% of the stated value (or range of values), +/ 5% of the stated value (or range of values), +/ 10% of the stated value (or range of values), etc. Any numerical values given herein should also be understood to include about or approximately that value, unless the context indicates otherwise. For example, if the value 10 is disclosed, then about 10 is also disclosed. Any numerical range recited herein is intended to include all sub-ranges subsumed therein. It is also understood that when a value is disclosed that less than or equal to the value, greater than or equal to the value and possible ranges between values are also disclosed, as appropriately understood by the skilled artisan. For example, if the value X is disclosed the less than or equal to X as well as greater than or equal to X (e.g., where X is a numerical value) is also disclosed. It is also understood that the throughout the application, data is provided in a number of different formats, and that this data, represents endpoints and starting points, and ranges for any combination of the data points. For example, if a particular data point 10 and a particular data point 15 are disclosed, it is understood that greater than, greater than or equal to, less than, less than or equal to, and equal to 10 and 15 are considered disclosed as well as between 10 and 15. It is also understood that each unit between two particular units are also disclosed. For example, if 10 and 15 are disclosed, then 11, 12, 13, and 14 are also disclosed.

[0106] Although various illustrative embodiments are described above, any of a number of changes may be made to various embodiments without departing from the scope of the invention as described by the claims. For example, the order in which various described method steps are performed may often be changed in alternative embodiments, and in other alternative embodiments one or more method steps may be skipped altogether. Optional features of various device and system embodiments may be included in some embodiments and not in others. Therefore, the foregoing description is provided primarily for exemplary purposes and should not be interpreted to limit the scope of the invention as it is set forth in the claims.

[0107] The examples and illustrations included herein show, by way of illustration and not of limitation, specific embodiments in which the subject matter may be practiced. As mentioned, other embodiments may be utilized and derived there from, such that structural and logical substitutions and changes may be made without departing from the scope of this disclosure. Such embodiments of the inventive subject matter may be referred to herein individually or collectively by the term invention merely for convenience and without intending to voluntarily limit the scope of this application to any single invention or inventive concept, if more than one is, in fact, disclosed. Thus, although specific embodiments have been illustrated and described herein, any arrangement calculated to achieve the same purpose may be substituted for the specific embodiments shown. This disclosure is intended to cover any and all adaptations or variations of various embodiments. Combinations of the above embodiments, and other embodiments not specifically described herein, will be apparent to those of skill in the art upon reviewing the above description.