Metal chalcogenide quantum dots for the detection of nitroaromatic chemicals

Abstract

The synthesis of AgInS.sub.2 based quantum dots and their use as fluorometric probes for the selective detection of nitroaromatic explosive chemicals, without the use of ligands specific to nitroaromatic explosive chemicals. These quantum dots allow the detection of nitroaromatic explosive molecules by eye. The present invention also represents a simple patterning method for quantum dots on substrates, including low cost filter paper. The ease of fabrication, use of less toxic materials, and the selectivity to nitroaromatic explosive chemicals results in a practical solution to the development of a portable fluorescent probe based on quantum dots for the detection of nitroaromatic explosive chemicals.

Claims

1. An analytical energetic material detection element, comprising: a substrate; and, one or more pluralities of functionalized fluorescent nanoparticles deposited on the substrate so that the nanoparticles are exposed to an outer environment of the detection element, wherein said nanoparticles undergo a fluorescence change in the presence of an energetic material; each of said one or more pluralities of functionalized fluorescent nanoparticles consisting of a single selected molar ratio of at least three elemental components wherein two of the at least three elemental components are S and In, and wherein other at least three elemental components are selected from the group consisting of: Zn, Ag, Cu, and combinations thereof wherein said one or more pluralities of functionalized fluorescent nanoparticles consisting of said single selected molar ratio of said at least three elemental components are functionalized with a ligand.

2. The detection element of claim 1 wherein the one or more pluralities of functionalized fluorescent nanoparticles consist of a selected molar ratio of Ag, In, and S, wherein said Ag, In, and S are each present in an amount greater than zero.

3. The detection element of claim 1 wherein the substrate comprises filter paper, cotton pad, fibrous cotton, cotton swab, cloth, litmus paper, silicon wafer, glass slide, plastic or a combination thereof.

4. The detection element of claim 1 wherein the energetic material to be detected comprises nitroaromatics, nitramines, or combinations thereof.

5. The detection element of claim 1 wherein the energetic material to be detected comprises octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX), hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX), hexanitrohexaazaisowurtzitane (HNIW), 1,3,5-trinitrobenzene (1,3,5-TNB), 1,3-dinitrobenzene (1,3-DNB), methyl-2,4,6-trinitrophenylnitramine (Tetryl), nitrobenzene (NB), 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (2,4,6-TNT), 4-amino-2,6-dinitrotoluene (4-Am-DNT), 2-amino-4,6-dinitrotoluene (2-Am-DNT), 2,4-dinitrotoluene (2,4-DNT), 2,6-dinitrotoluene (2,6-DNT), 2-nitrotoluene (2-NT), 3-Nitrotoluene (3-NT), 4-nitrotoluene (4-NT), or mixtures thereof.

6. The detection element of claim 1 wherein each of the one or more pluralities of functionalized fluorescent nanoparticles detects a different energetic material.

7. The detection element of claim 1 wherein the one or more pluralities of functionalized fluorescent nanoparticles are functionalized with a ligand that binds to the energetic material and facilitates a charge transfer between the energetic material and the nanoparticles.

8. The detection element of claim 1 wherein the one or more pluralities of functionalized fluorescent nanoparticles are deposited on the substrate in a patterned configuration.

9. The detection element of claim 1 wherein the one or more pluralities of functionalized fluorescent nanoparticles are deposited on the substrate using a photolithographic process.

10. An assay method for detecting the presence of one or more target energetic materials in a sample, comprising: exposing a detection element to a sample to be tested, wherein the detection element comprises a substrate and one or more pluralities of functionalized fluorescent nanoparticles deposited on the substrate so that the nanoparticles are exposed to an outer environment, wherein said nanoparticles undergo a change in fluorescence in the presence of the one or more target energetic materials; illuminating the detection element with a source of UV light; and, determining any change in fluorescence of the illuminated detection element to determine if it corresponds to one or more fluorescence values that is indicative of the presence of one or more of the one or more target energetic materials; wherein said detection element comprises one or more pluralities of functionalized fluorescent nanoparticles consisting of a single selected molar ratio of at least three elemental components wherein two of the at least three elemental components are S and In, and wherein other at least three elemental components are selected from the group consisting of: Zn, Ag, Cu, and combinations thereof wherein said one or more pluralities of functionalized fluorescent nanoparticles consisting of said single selected molar ratio of said at least three elemental components are functionalized with a ligand.

11. The assay method of claim 10 wherein the sample to be tested is a solution and the detection element is inserted into the solution.

12. The assay method of claim 10 wherein the one or more fluorescence values are a quenching of fluorescence, an increase in fluorescence, or a change in wavelength of fluorescence.

13. The assay method of claim 10 wherein the one or more pluralities of functionalized fluorescent nanoparticles consisting of a selected molar ratio of Ag, In, and S, wherein said Ag, In, and S are each present in an amount greater than zero, and wherein said nanoparticles undergo a fluorescence change in the presence of the one or more target energetic materials.

14. The assay method of claim 10 wherein the substrate comprises filter paper, cotton pad, fibrous cotton, cotton swab, cloth, litmus paper, silicon wafer, glass slide, or plastic.

15. The assay method of claim 10 wherein the one or more target energetic materials to be detected comprises octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX), hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX), hexanitrohexaazaisowurtzitane (HNIW), 1,3,5-trinitrobenzene (1,3,5-TNB), 1,3-dinitrobenzene (1,3-DNB), methyl-2,4,6-trinitrophenylnitramine (Tetryl), nitrobenzene (NB), 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (2,4,6-TNT), 4-amino-2,6-dinitrotoluene (4-Am-DNT), 2-amino-4,6-dinitrotoluene (2-Am-DNT), 2,4-dinitrotoluene (2,4-DNT), 2,6-dinitrotoluene (2,6-DNT), 2-nitrotoluene (2-NT), 3-Nitrotoluene (3-NT), 4-nitrotoluene (4-NT), and mixtures thereof.

16. The assay method of claim 10 wherein the plurality of functionalized fluorescent nanoparticles are functionalized with a ligand that binds to the one or more target energetic materials and facilitates a charge transfer between the one or more target energetic materials and the nanoparticles.

17. A chemical-analysis device for detecting at least one energetic material in a sample, wherein the device comprises: at least one test element for detecting the at least one energetic material, the test element comprising a substrate having a fluorescent surface, wherein the fluorescent surface comprises at least one detection reagent which is set up to carry out at least one visually detectable reaction that results in a change in fluorescence of the at least one detection reagent in the presence of the at least one energetic material; wherein said at least one detection reagent comprises one or more pluralities of functionalized fluorescent nanoparticles consisting of a single selected molar ratio of at least three elemental components wherein two of the at least three elemental components are S and In, and wherein other at least three elemental components are selected from the group consisting of: Zn, Ag, Cu, and combinations thereof wherein said one or more pluralities of functionalized fluorescent nanoparticles consisting of said single selected molar ratio of said at least three elemental components are functionalized with a ligand.

18. The chemical-analysis device of claim 17 wherein the change in the fluorescence of the at least one detection reagent is a quenching of fluorescence, an increase in fluorescence, or a change in wavelength of the fluorescence.

19. The chemical-analysis device of claim 17 wherein the at least one test element is set up such that a stationary state of the detectable reaction is reached within a period of up to 5 seconds from exposure to the at least one energetic material.

20. The chemical-analysis device of claim 17 wherein the at least one detection reagent comprises a plurality of functionalized fluorescent nanoparticles consisting of a selected molar ratio of Ag, In, and S, wherein said Ag, In, and S are each present in an amount greater than zero, and wherein said nanoparticles undergo a fluorescence change in the presence of the at least one energetic material.

21. The chemical-analysis device of claim 20 wherein the plurality of functionalized fluorescent nanoparticles are functionalized with a ligand that binds to the at least one energetic material and facilitates a charge transfer between the at least one energetic material and the nanoparticles.

22. The chemical-analysis device of claim 17 further comprising a source of UV light.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) FIG. 1 is a graph of emission spectra collected from 425 nm-775 nm of functionalized nanoparticles excited at 395 nm according to embodiments of the invention.

(2) FIG. 2 is a graph of emission spectra of samples of a nanoparticle with a variety of ligands according to embodiments of the invention.

(3) FIG. 3 is a graph of changes in emission intensity of nanoparticles exposed to various concentrations of a number of metals according to embodiments of the invention.

(4) FIG. 4 is a graph of the selectivity of changes in emission intensity of nanoparticles exposed to various concentrations of a number of metals according to embodiments of the invention.

(5) FIG. 5 is a graph of the absence of selectivity of changes in emission intensity of a sample of nanoparticles exposed to various concentrations of a number of metals according to embodiments of the invention.

(6) FIG. 6 is a graph showing a selective preference for Cu.sup.2+ ions over other metals in a change in emission intensity in nanoparticles according to embodiments of the invention.

(7) FIG. 7 is a graph showing an increase in emission intensity in the presence of increased concentrations of cadmium (Cd.sup.2+) ions in nanoparticles according to embodiments of the invention.

(8) FIG. 8 is a photograph of an optical image of a bare glass slide (1.sup.st on the left), partially cured PDMS+Nanoparticle 1 (NP1) on a glass substrate (2.sup.nd on the left), and free standing NOA+NP1 films (3.sup.rd and 4.sup.th from the left side).

(9) FIG. 9 is a schematic of the fluorescence process of a functionalized nanoparticle according to embodiments of the invention.

(10) FIG. 10 is a schematic representation of various mechanisms for fluorescence changes of a functionalized nanoparticle according to embodiments of the invention.

(11) FIG. 11a shows the optical properties of functionalized nanoparticles according to embodiments of the invention.

(12) FIG. 11b shows a representative SEM image of a thin film of functionalized nanoparticles according to embodiments of the invention.

(13) FIG. 11c shows EDAX spectra of the functionalized nanoparticle thin film of 100 nm thick according to embodiments of the invention.

(14) FIG. 12a TEM image of a representative nanoparticle according to embodiments of the invention.

(15) FIG. 12b shows an AFM image of a dilute solution of functionalized nanoparticles dispensed on a silicon wafer according to embodiments of the invention.

(16) FIG. 12c shows the AFM height profile from the image in 12b according to embodiments of the invention.

(17) FIG. 13a is a graph showing the emission of a functionalized nanoparticle solution with different concentrations of TNT according to embodiments of the invention.

(18) FIG. 13b is a graph showing the emission of a functionalized nanoparticle solution with different concentrations of TNT according to embodiments of the invention.

(19) FIG. 14a is a graph of the emission intensity of a functionalized nanoparticle solution exposed to 10 mM energetic solutions of RDX, CL-20, and TNT, according to embodiments of the invention.

(20) FIG. 14b shows a column graph showing the selectivity of the functionalized nanoparticles according to embodiments of the invention.

(21) FIG. 15a is a graph showing the emission of functionalized nanoparticles on paper substrates and after exposure to 10 mM TNT according to embodiments of the invention.

(22) FIG. 15b shows optical images of SU-8 patterned paper substrates with infiltrated functionalized nanoparticles before and after exposure to 5 mM TNT according to embodiments of the invention.

(23) FIG. 15c shows an optical image of a cotton swab with functionalized nanoparticles before and after exposure to 1 mM TNT according to embodiments of the invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION

(24) Although embodiments of the invention are described in considerable detail, including references to certain versions thereof, other versions are possible. Therefore, the spirit and scope of the appended claims should not be limited to the description of versions included herein.

(25) Where a range of values is provided, it is understood that each intervening value, to the tenth of the unit of the lower limit unless the context clearly disclosed. Each smaller range between any stated value or intervening value in a stated range and any other stated or intervening value in that stated range is encompassed within the invention. The upper and lower limits of these smaller ranges may independently be included or excluded in the range, and each range where either, neither or both limits are included in the smaller ranges is also encompassed within the invention, subject to any specifically excluded limit in the stated range. Where the stated range includes one or both of the limits, ranges excluding either or both of those included limits are also included in the invention.

(26) Embodiments of the invention generally relate to colorimetric detection using specifically functionalized, environmentally stable fluorescent nanoparticles, a novel method of producing fluorescent nanoparticles, including quantum dots, a method for creating test strips for metal and/or energetic material detection using the fluorescent nanoparticles; and coatings incorporating the fluorescent nanoparticles. These nanoparticles have potential for a number of naval applications particularly in the areas of biofouling and condition based maintenance through the visible fluorescence detection of trace metals and energetic materials. The nanoparticles of the present invention lend themselves well to their use in a non-laboratory environment using various combinations of zinc, silver, indium, copper, and sulfur to create non-toxic, air and water stable fluorescent nanoparticles useful, for example, for metal ion detection in water either in solution or as test strips. Other uses include using the nanoparticles to make coatings and paints for applications such as safety paint on rotor blades of helicopters to make them more visible at night or to make coatings that could be used for commercial applications such as on road signs.

(27) Traditional quantum dots and other fluorescent nanoparticles are not compatible outside of a laboratory environment due to their toxicity and instability. This invention embodies functionalized nanostructures in various spatial layouts such as nanocrystals, nanoparticles, and quantum dots that are air and water stable and non-toxic. Energy transfer upon target binding provides a designer, colorimetric sensing mechanism.

(28) The fluorescent nanoparticles of the present invention are stable as an aggregated solid (in the solid phase), suspended or tethered onto various substrates, or in solution which can then be further formulated into films or coatings. These coatings differ from previously studied polymer nanoparticle hybrids in that they are designed to be the outer shell or paint layer with direct environmental exposure and therefore meeting the requirement that the coatings must be stable in environmental conditions.

(29) If the functionalizing ligand and nanoparticle are properly matched it is possible to tune the fluorescence and/or changes in fluorescence in the presence of just one or a few select targets. This selective fluorescence can be used for an instant-read visual test to detect in real time the contamination of metal ions, for example, in relevant environmental samples. Additionally, synthesizing a series of nanoparticles with identical non-specific ligands shows that metal specificity can be gained strictly from interaction with the nanoparticle core. Direct interaction between metal ions and the nanoparticle core will lead to a simpler, more robust, system.

(30) The metal ion selectivity of the nanoparticles of the present invention can be used to create a test that can easily be performed in the field during an operation (construction, maintenance, repair, general industrial processes, etc.) without needing expensive analytical equipment or pretreatment of samples before analysis. For such a field-able colorimetric test, the fluorescence change must be strong enough that it is visible by eye. Testing could then determine the presence or absence of a particular metal ion by simply combining the nanoparticles with a sample of the water to be tested. The combination of the nanoparticles and the sample could occur in the liquid state by mixing two solutions or in the solid/liquid state by incorporating the nanoparticles into a solid test strip to be dipped into the water to be tested. For example, this solid test strip could be a filter type material, cotton, or a polymer matrix that encapsulates the nanoparticles (coating type). The resulting fluorescence (i.e., presence, absence, or change therein) under ultraviolet light after combination, will determine the presence or absence of specific contaminants leading to an instant-read, real-time visual test.

(31) One preferred embodiment comprises fluorescent nanoparticles comprised of combinations of two or more components selected from the group consisting of Zinc, Silver. Copper, Indium, Sulfur, and various combinations thereof. Other preferred embodiments comprise two or more components selected from the group consisting of Zinc, Silver, Indium, and Sulfur (ZAIS); although, other non-toxic environmentally stable formulations can be synthesized and used.

(32) Still further preferred embodiments comprise fluorescent nanoparticles (including quantum dot nanoparticles) comprised of combinations of three or more components selected from the group consisting of Zinc, Silver, Copper, Indium, Sulfur, and various combinations thereof. Other preferred embodiments comprise three components of the group consisting of Silver, Indium, and Sulfur (AIS).

(33) Another embodiment of the present invention comprises a simple, optimized method of nanoparticle synthesis and functionalization. A preferred method of synthesizing functionalized nanoparticles comprises:

(34) 1) combining metals and sulfur at specific molar ratios to get a starting metal powder which is stirred in water at room temperature for about 15 minutes, then filtered and dried under vacuum at about 40 C. for about 12 to about 24 hours;

(35) 2) heating the starting metal powder alone in an inert atmosphere for between about 1 and about 60 minutes at about 150 C. to about 250 C.;

(36) 3) adding a specified ligand having desired target binding functionality and reacting via further heating at about 150 C. to about 250 C. for between about 1 to about 30 minutes; and,

(37) 4) isolating the resulting functionalized nanoparticles using one or more series of centrifuging and washing steps. Each centrifuging is performed for about 5 to about 15 minutes at 2000-10,000 rpm, preferably at greater than about 5000 rpm. Higher centrifugation rates facilitate the isolation of smaller nanoparticles, including quantum dots.

(38) The process described above is improved over previous methods as it better allows for industrial applications and scale-up; as well as for easy manipulation of the metal ratio and ligand functionality for a variety of different applications. Step 1 can be done in bulk and the product stored. Then, as specific applications arise, the product of step 1 can be functionalized with any variety of ligands in step 2 to produce a desired product based upon the application of metal detection, coatings, or test strip applications.

(39) Examples of suitable sources of metal(s) include, but are not limited to, elemental metal and metal salts, including for example, nitrates, phosphates, stearates, sulfates, acetates, and halides. Preferred metal sources include nitrates.

(40) Examples of suitable sources of sulfur include, but are not limited to, diethyldithiocarbamate and sodium sulfide.

(41) Varying the ratio of the metal components Zn:Ag:In:Cu results in changing the wavelength of fluorescence. A preferred embodiment comprises a ratio of xZn:yAg:2yIn. Another preferred embodiment comprises a ratio of 2*(1x)Zn:xAg:xIn. In preferred embodiments, the sulfur source is added in an amount of between about 2x to about 5x.

(42) With specific metal ratios in the nanoparticles and the selection of a proper ligand, a system can be created for a selective colorimetric sensor.

(43) In a preferred synthesis temperatures for heating are between about 150 C. to about 250 C., more preferably between about 170 C. to about 200 C.

(44) In a preferred synthesis a stoichiometric excess of ligand is added. Preferably a large excess of ligand, on the order of at least 2x-30x. Any excess ligand that doesn't bind is removed during centrifugation and washing. In one alternate embodiment of the synthesis, the ligand is used as a solvent in the process.

(45) Although embodiments of the invention are described in considerable detail, including references to certain versions thereof, other versions are possible. Examples of other versions include various ratios of Zn:Ag:In:Cu:S (where the amount of any particular component may equal zero); a variety of functionalizing ligands, and any number of polymer compositions for coating/films. Therefore, the spirit and scope of the appended claims should not be limited to the description of versions included in the specific examples herein.

EXAMPLES

(46) For the following examples, the solvents, ligand (dodecylamine), and diethyldithiocarbamate, were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. Metal powders of AgNO.sub.3 and In(NO.sub.3).sub.3 (purity 99.999%) used in the quantum dot synthesis were purchased from Strem Chemical.

Example 1

(47) A number of powders were made by combining sources of four elementszinc, silver, indium, and sulfur, by adding the metals in a ratio of 2*(1x)Zn, xAg, xIn, and a stoichiometric excess of sulfur, in water and stirring at high speed between 500-1200 rpm for between 1-60 minutes at room temperature. The starting metal source materials used were Zn(NO.sub.3).sub.2, AgNO.sub.3, and In(NO.sub.3).sub.3, and diethyldithiocarbamate as the sulfur source.

Example 2

(48) A number of powders were made by combining the four elementszinc, silver, indium, and sulfurby adding 2-4 mmol of each metal in a ratio of 2*(1x)Zn:xAg:xIn and 2-10 mmol of sulfur in 20 mL water and stirring at high speed for 5 minutes. The starting materials used were Zn(NO.sub.3).sub.2, AgNO.sub.3, In(NO.sub.3).sub.3 and diethyldithiocarbamate (as the sulfur source) and they were added as outlined in Table 1 for the samples.

(49) TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Sample Preparation for Nanoparticle Synthesis Sample Ratio used ID Zn:Ag:In:S NP1 0:1:1:2 NP2 0.6:0.7:0.7:2 NP3 1.2:0.4:0.4:2

(50) Each powder was then filtered through a medium porosity frit and washed with water and methanol. Each powder was dried overnight in the oven at 40 C.

(51) After drying overnight, 50 mg of powder was placed in a flask and heated to 180 C. After heating for 30 minutes, 1 ml of dodecylamine ligand was added and the mixture heated for a further 3 minutes. The resulting liquid was centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 15 minutes. The supernatant was removed and washed with methanol and centrifuged again at 5000 rpm for 15 minutes. The supernatant was removed and the precipitate dissolved in 10 mL of chloroform or DMSO depending upon the desired final solution.

(52) A primary function of a suitable ligand for the present invention is that it binds to the target compound and facilitates the appropriate electrical effect upon binding, i.e., charge transfer between the target ion/molecule and the nanoparticle. Preferred ligands include, for example, hetero-straight chain, hetero-cyclic, or hetero-aromatic compounds having up to about 20 carbon atoms and having one or more hetero atoms, where the hetero atoms are independently selected from N, S, O, P, and combinations thereof. Examples include, but are not limited to, dodecylamine, dodecane thiol, phenanthroline, bipyridine, and thiocyanate.

Example 3

(53) By changing the ratio of zinc, indium and silver, nanoparticles, in the quantum dot size range, that emit across the entire visible spectrum were made. These examples all utilized dodecylamine as the ligand. For this set of samples, the amount of indium and silver was kept the same (x) and the amount of zinc was varied as 2*(1x). The amount of sulfur in the samples was equimolar with the total metal concentration. Three different samples were synthesized, characterized, and tested. The ratios and emission wavelength are shown in Table 2.

(54) TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 Sample Preparation for nanopartiele Synthesis .sub.max Sample Ratio used Zn Ag In S (excited @ ID Zn:Ag:In:S (mmol) (mmol) (mmol) (mmol) 395 nm) NP1 0:1:1:2 0.00 0.63 0.63 2.49 647 nm NP2 0.6:0.7:0.7:2 0.38 0.44 0.44 2.49 578 nm NP3 1.2:0.4:0.4:2 0.75 0.25 0.25 2.49 549 nm

Example 4

(55) Each of the nanoparticle samples from Example 3 were characterized using energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), UV-Vis and fluorescence. While EDS is not a quantitative technique it showed that all of the expected elements were present in the samples. UV-Vis spectra were collected for each of the samples from 250-800 nm and the absorbance for all three samples lies in the UV region of the spectrum below 450 nm. The samples were each excited at 395 nm and the emission spectra were collected from 425 nm-775 nm (FIG. 1) with emission maximum (max) reported in Table 2. Comparisons of relative fluorescence intensity, in the presence of metal ions, were determined at max throughout.

Example 5

(56) Using one selected ratio of metals (sample NP4Zn:Ag:In of 1:1:2), a variety of ligands were used to synthesize a set of quantum dots that fluoresce over a wide range of the visible spectrum, as shown in FIG. 2.

Example 6

(57) A series of metal ions, was selected for testing based on known environmental hazards or of general interest. The metals Al(SO.sub.4).sub.3.18H.sub.2O, CoCl.sub.2.6H.sub.2O, CuCl.sub.2, FeCl.sub.3, HgCl.sub.2, K.sub.2CrO.sub.7, KCrO.sub.4, MnCl.sub.2, and Pb(NO.sub.3).sub.2 were obtained from Sigma Aldrich. Solutions of metal ions were made by preparing a stock solution with a concentration of 5 mM and then making serial dilutions to create concentrations of 0.5 mM, 50 M, 5 M and 500 nM (1 ppm). Metal ions were dissolved in deionized water to known concentrations before testing. All solutions were prepared from chloride salts, except for the chromate and dichromate, lead, and aluminum samples, which were potassium, nitrate, and sulfate salts, respectively. Each of these metals were made and tested in water at five different concentrations made via serial dilution in a range of 5 mM-500 nM.

(58) Samples used to measure the response of the nanoparticle fluorescence in the presence of metal ions were prepared by using 3 mL of the desired metal ion solution and adding in 1 mL from a stock solution of nanoparticles. Emission spectra were then collected immediately after mixing of the two solutions. The measurements are reported by comparing the resulting fluorescence intensity (E) after addition to metal ions to the initial fluorescence intensity (E0) before metal ion exposure. Depending on the sensitivity of the nanoparticle to a particular metal the sample can appear to be unreacted (E/E0 of 1.0), completely reacted and no fluorescence detected by eye (E/E0 of 0.2 or less) or partially reacted where fluorescence is visible but weaker than the starting intensity (E/E0 of 0.4-0.8). To categorize these three regimes is fairly straightforward by eye without the need for additional instrumentation to actually measure the fluorescence.

(59) Laboratory testing of the three nanoparticle samples with various metal ions was conducted by visual inspection and then fluorescence measurements were taken to determine the fluorescence remaining compared to the starting nanoparticle sample (E/E0). Data reported in the charts and tables are reported at the emission maximum (max) for each of the nanoparticle samples without metal ions as reported in Table 2.

(60) In FIG. 3, NP1 showed the reaction trend, where fluorescence becomes more quenched as the concentration of metal ions is increased, for most of the metal ions. There were however a few exceptions to this, in particular chromate and to a greater extent dichromate. The reaction of NP1 with dichromate led to a complete quenching of fluorescence at concentrations as low as 500 nM. Interestingly, chromate despite being the same metal, in the same oxidation state did show some fluorescence at these lower concentrations from 50 M to 500 nM, while concentrations higher than 50 M did quench the fluorescence in this sample. These results were unexpected given the generality of the dodecylamine ligand, but may point toward metal ion size or overall charge having an effect on selectivity. The other observation that was unexpected, and can be seen in the data is that the level of quenching is not linear with these samples. There is clearly a threshold where there is little to no interaction with the nanoparticle and then the interaction is drastic and the sample is quenched. This is seen most obviously in both the Cu.sup.2+ and Hge.sup.2+ solutions. In both cases at a concentration of 5 M or greater the sample is quenched. This characteristic could be useful in determining not only which metals are present in solution but also help to give some indication of the concentration of that metal as well.

(61) Testing of NP2 was expected to look the same as NP1 given that the ligand surrounding the metal core was again dodecylamine. No selectivity was anticipated and yet NP2 not only showed selectivity for certain metal ions, the selectivity was different than that seen in NP1 (FIG. 4).

(62) NP2 showed a significant selectivity for mercury ions in solution. This result is the opposite of the reaction with Hg.sup.2+ seen in NP1 where mercury was the least reactive metal that was tested. For solutions containing concentrations of Hg.sup.2+ ions as low as 500 nM the solution is completely quenched (as determined by eye) for NP2. This was also true for chromate when the NP2 solution was used for the test. And, as seen with NP1 the detection of dichromate and chromate are different.

(63) In contrast to both of the other nanoparticle samples, NP3 appears to have no selectivity for any particular metal ion in water. The NP3 sample shows the most consistent response to each metal ion, showing a general trend of quenching as the concentration of metal ions increase (FIG. 5). NP3 is the only sample in which all of the different ions completely quench the sample at a concentration of 5 mM or greater, this may be a good configuration to use in the lab as a reference system. Similarly, once the concentration of the metal ions drops lower than 5 M the fluorescence is visible regardless of the metal ion, there is no selectivity in NP3.

Example 7

(64) A set of experiments was performed with metal ions in acetonitrile solutions, and the nanoparticles dissolved in chloroform. Using these solvents, under these conditions, the nanoparticles do not aggregate or precipitate from solution. Generally there was no significant change to the fluorescence upon exposure to the metal ions; however, the exception to this was the preference for Cu.sup.2+ ions over the other metals. Even with Cu.sup.2+ concentrations as low as 500 nM (1 ppm) the NP3 fluorescence was completely quenched (FIG. 6).

Example 8

(65) All three nanoparticle samples (NP1, NP2, and NP3) had the opposite reaction when tested with cadmium (Cd.sup.2+) ions. In this case, as the concentration of cadmium in solution increased the fluorescence of the nanoparticles was enhanced rather than quenched as seen with all other metals tested. FIG. 7 shows the emission spectra of NP2 with various concentrations of Cd.sup.2+ ions. The fluorescence increases by nearly an order of magnitude when compared with NP2 in the absence of Cd.sup.2+. This order of magnitude increase is seen for all three of the nanoparticle samples in the presence of cadmium.

Example 9

(66) Various ligands can be produced and tested with the nanoparticle powders. Examples of such preferred ligands include, but are not limited to:

(67) ##STR00001##

(68) where

(69) ##STR00002##
is an alkyl having 1-20 carbon atoms.

Example 10

(70) A thiol ligand is synthesized using the method comprising:

(71) ##STR00003##

(72) When specific ligands are added to the nanoparticle powders, the resulting fluorescent nanoparticles become functionalized to specifically bind target molecules. Upon binding of the target molecules to the nanoparticles, a shift in emission wavelength is observed (for example the solution turns from blue to red). The extent of this wavelength shift will depend upon the charge transfer interaction between the target molecule and nanoparticle, conducted through the ligand.

Example 11

(73) Using three nanoparticle compositions from Example 2, tests were run with sea water obtained from the Santa Barbara, Calif. area. The seawater was first tested using ICP to determine the natural abundance of ions in the seawater and compared to widely accepted values (Table 3). The seawater sample was in good agreement with expected values with only the amount of vanadium being slightly elevated. The nanoparticle samples were added in the absence of any known metal contamination and emission spectra were collected to determine if the nanoparticles continue to fluoresce given the natural makeup of the sea water. The emission spectra show that the sea water had no effect on the fluorescence of the nanoparticles showing that these nanoparticles function in real life environmental situations without any pretreating of the sample.

(74) TABLE-US-00003 TABLE 3 Ions Present in Sea Water at greater than 3 ppm Santa Barbara Typical Concentrations Concentrations Ion (mg/mL) (mg/mL) Sodium 10,230 10,800 Magnesium 1,255 1,290 Calcium 403 411 Potassium 372 392 Strontium 5.82 8.10 Boron 3.55 4.45 Vanadium 3.08 0.002

(75) Another embodiment of the present invention comprises the formulation of optical or sensing coatings incorporating fluorescent nanoparticles. In preferred embodiments these nanoparticles comprise the quantum dots/nanoparticles of the current invention. Such coatings can be used for optical and/or sensing functions. These nanoparticles can be incorporated into a coating for increased situational awareness. The coating can be made either as water dispersible or a solvent dispersible system depending upon needs for the application. It is formed by mixing a polymer with the fluorescent nanoparticles by standard polymer processing techniques. The ratio of florescent nanoparticles to polymer (fill factor) may range from 0.1-90% nanoparticles depending on the application. Various polymers including, but not limited to, Nylon, cellulose triacetate, poly(lauryl methacrylate) (PLMA), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), and biphenyl perfluorocyclobutyl (BP-PFCB) can be used. The preferred polymer coating protects and stabilizes the nanoparticles in the environment but also should not interfere with absorption of light or the resulting fluorescence emission of the nanoparticles. Methods for applying the coating to an object of interest include but are not limited to layer by layer, spraying, electrostatic coating, painting, dip coating, spin casting, powder coating and alternating polyelectrolyte deposition.

Example 12

(76) Nanoparticles prepared as described in Example 2 were made and dissolved in a solution of chloroform (100 mg/20 mL concentration). Less than 1 mL of solution was added to about 100 mg of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) to form a fluorescent liquid that was drop coated onto a glass substrate and quickly cured at room temperature to get a fluorescent coating that was water resistant and remains fluorescent for longer than 1 month.

Example 13

(77) Nanoparticles prepared as described in Example 2 were dissolved in a solution of chloroform (100 mg/20 mL concentration) and added to host polymers consisting of polyurethane, polydimethyl siloxane, and SU-8 to fabricate free standing films on glass, silicon wafers, and silicon dioxide coated wafers. Where SU-8 is a negative photoresist that is epoxy based. SU-8 is composed of Bisphenol A Novolac epoxy that is dissolved in an organic solvent (gamma-butyrolactone GBL or cyclopentanone, depending on the formulation) and up to 10 wt. % of mixed Triarylsulfonium/hexafluoroantimonate salt as the photoacid generator). Another mixture used polyurethane and SU-8 to form films as thin as 200 nm up to 5 microns thick. FIG. 8 shows several examples of the fluorescent films under UV-irradiation both on wafers and as stand-alone films.

(78) The fluorescent nanoparticles of the present invention are made from varying ratios of metals including zinc, silver, copper and indium. By varying the ratios of the metals the nanoparticles can be synthesized to emit over a large range of the visible spectrum. Mixing these nanoparticles with a polymer to create a coating or a paint that can be applied to a variety of surfaces can be used to create a thin film that can be placed on any surface.

(79) The type of coating can be either water dispersible or a solvent dispersible system depending upon the needs for the application. The process of creating the nanoparticle containing coating or paint is a simple process comprising:

(80) 1) choosing fluorescent nanoparticles with the desired emission wavelength;

(81) 2) incorporation (mixing) of the fluorescent nanoparticles into a polymer and/or other materials needed in the coating such as an adhesive or binding agent, or a catalyst to aid in the curing process;

(82) 3) placing the uncured nanoparticle polymer mixture onto a desired surface; and,

(83) 4) curing the polymer for final application.

(84) Another application of the nanoparticle containing coatings of the present invention is for increased visual awareness. Incorporation of fluorescent nanoparticles into a paint or coating can allow increased visualization of the object being painted under specific lighting conditions such as ultraviolet or black lighting.

(85) Another embodiment of the present invention comprises the production of test strips containing non-toxic, air and water stable, fluorescent nanoparticles in a variety of configurations to allow for facile metal detection. By selectively functionalizing these nanoparticles and adjusting the chemical composition, we are able to methodically alter the band gap. These changes influence the type of charge transfer that takes place between the nanoparticle and target molecules. Charge transfer between a target molecule and the nanoparticle is readily identified by a colorimetric change allowing for a fast, simple, visual detection system. A preferred type of detection that would be anticipated would be an on/off detection where the user would be able to visually see fluorescence on the strip before contact with a sample then upon exposure to a certain metal the fluorescence would quench.

(86) Synthetic modifications can be made to the ligands on the nanoparticle to allow for binding to a substrate as well as metal ion specific binding. Types of substrates include but are not limited to filter paper, cotton pads, fibrous cotton, cotton swab, cloth, litmus paper, silicon wafers, glass slides, plastics. These nanoparticles can be incorporated into a test strip material that will then be used for detection of metals in solution at concentrations as low as 1 ppm.

Example 14

(87) Nanoparticles were prepared as outlined in Example 2 and dissolved in a solution of chloroform (100 mg/20 mL concentration). The nanoparticles were solution cast onto various substrates including but not limited to filter paper, litmus paper, silicon wafers, glass slides and plastics at a concentration from 0.1-40% by weight in chloroform to form the test strips. Samples were allowed to air dry under ambient conditions and subsequently exposed to metal solutions containing varying concentrations of metals including Cu.sup.2+, Hg.sup.2+, Al, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, chromate, and dichromate, at concentrations of 5 nM-5 mM. Fluorescence quenching was monitored using a UV-flashlight and observing quenching by eye as well as measuring quenching of the substrate using a fluorimeter.

(88) The mechanism for fluorescence changing has been tried on substrates including glass, pH paper and filter paper. All three substrates have a visible change by eye when in contact with a concentrated (5 mM) solution of metal ions. Detection mechanisms include fluorescence quenching and emission shifting (color changing).

Example 15

(89) Testing elements were made using nanoparticles prepared as outlined in Example 2 and dissolved in solution at a concentration of 1 mg/mL in chloroform. 3 mL of this solution was added individually to a number of cotton pads and allowed to dry completely. Once dry the pad's fluorescence was measured for each pad before exposure to any analytes. Next 2 mL of a 1 ppm solution of the desired target analyte was added to the pads and the fluorescence was measured again without drying. Target analytes were metal solutions containing varying concentrations of metals including Cu.sup.2+, Hg.sup.2+, Al, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, chromate, and dichromate. To ensure that the any fluorescence change was not due to the wet pad, samples were also run with just a water blank for reference. Fluorescence changes, both quenching and wavelength shifting, was monitored using a UV-flashlight and observing quenching by eye as well as measuring quenching of the substrate using a fluorimeter.

(90) Additionally, to ensure that the fluorescence change was not due to photobleaching of the sample in the instrument a dry pad with only nanoparticles was tested and after 10 fluorescence scans there was less than a 10% loss in fluorescence (no change visible by eye).

Example 16

(91) Testing elements were made using nanoparticles incorporated into polymers and then placing the polymers on a suitable substrate. Nanoparticles prepared as described in Example 2 were dissolved in a solution of chloroform (1 mg/mL concentration) and added to host polymers comprised of polyurethane and SU-8. Polyurethane was mixed with different volumes (1 mL up to 10 mL) of nanoparticle solution forming a 1 to 10% solution by volume to form luminescent free standing polymer films. Another mixture used SU-8 to form films as thin as 200 nm up to 5 microns thick.

(92) Different nanoparticle solutions can be mixed at varying volumes in the range of about 1% to about 90% by volume, preferably about 1% to about 50% by volume, with different polymers to form luminescent mixtures. Testing elements are made by placing the uncured nanoparticle/polymer mixture onto a desired substrate and then curing the polymer for final application.

Example 17

(93) Testing elements are made employing two or more different types of nanoparticles. A plurality of each type of nanoparticle is deposited independently on different locations on the substrate. Each of the different types of nanoparticle having unique fluorescence properties and target analytes. Each of the different types of nanoparticle can be deposited on the substrate using a suitable means, for example as a solution, in a mixture with a polymer, or in a mixture with a suitable carrier. By utilizing more than one type of nanoparticle on a single testing element, a single testing element is used to detect multiple analytes.

Example 18

(94) For the synthesis of silver/indium/sulfur quantum dot nanoparticles (AIS QDs), metal powders of AgNO.sub.3 and In(NO.sub.3).sub.3 were used in a thermal decomposition reaction while using dodecylamine as the ligand to generate fluorescent AIS QDs. By adding a stirring step, the synthesis could be scaled up and it improved the QD yield. Synthesis with this method yielded quantities of QDs as high as 300 milligrams per batch. These particular QDs were found to be dispersible in various solvents which include acetonitrile, chloroform, toluene, chlorobenzene, anisole, and dichlorobenzene, however, chloroform was the best solvent as the QDs did not aggregate over time, and led to highly luminescent quantum dot solutions as shown in the optical image in the inset of FIG. 11a. FIG. 11a shows the optical properties of the QDs as prepared. The black curve shows the fluorescence emission of a 1 mg/ml solution of AIS QDs in chloroform. The maximum emission was centered at 600 nm at an excitation wavelength of 395 nm as shown in FIG. 11a. The broad, strong emission peak is typical of these chalcogenide QD nanomaterials. The FWHM for AIS QDs synthesized via a thermal decomposition route is 111 nm. The red spectrum in FIG. 11a depicts the UV-Vis of solution of AIS QDs. The AIS QDs showed a good absorption in the UV and blue wavelengths. FIG. 11b shows a representative SEM image of a thin film of AIS QDs. For the fabrication of thin films of AIS QDs a 1 inch by 1 inch silicon wafer with an orientation of (100) was cut and cleaved. The wafer chiplet was vigorously rinsed in acetone, isopropyl alcohol, and deionized water, respectively. The wafer was dried with a stream of nitrogen and to form a thin film of AIS QDs, a 1 mg/ml solution of AIS QDs in chloroform was dropped cast and allowed to dry. Several layers were added (five rounds of 1 mL dispensed volume) on top of the dried AIS layer were performed until an average thickness of 100 nm was obtained as determined by a stylus profilometer. The morphology of AIS QDs in a thin film format (100-138 nm thick) shows a flower-like, rough layout of aggregated QDs. In order to verify the presence of the metal and sulfur sources in our AIS QDs, we also analyzed thin films of AIS QDs with EDAX. FIG. 11c shows EDAX spectra of the AIS QD thin film of 100 nm thick shown in FIG. 11b. The Ag, In, and S elemental analysis peaks are denoted in the spectra and confirms presence of these elements in the nanomaterials as prepared.

(95) TEM and AFM confirmed the presence of spherical quantum dot materials. FIG. 12 shows the TEM and AFM images of a representative QD batch synthesized in this work. TEM images revealed smaller particle distributions with an average size of 1.5 nm as show in FIG. 12a. In order to determine the height of the AIS QDs we measured the AFM line profile of a dilute solution on AIS QDs dispensed on a silicon wafer. FIG. 12b shows a 3.0 m3.0 m AFM scan of the AIS QDs. A line profile was used to determine the height of the smaller QD clusters shown in the AFM image in FIG. 12b as shown in the black dotted line in FIG. 12b. According to the AFM software the AIS QDs have a height of 1.2-1.4 nm as depicted in FIG. 12c. The AIS QDs aggregate when the solvent is dried (FIG. 12b) and it seems the dodecylamine keeps the QD cores from direct contact to minimize self-quenching. However, for the present application (i.e. sensing TNT) the aggregation of the AIS nanomaterials doesn't directly affect the sensing mechanism.

(96) For the following examples, the SU-8 photoresist and developer were purchased from Microchem. TNT, CL-20, and RDX were obtained in-house. All reagents and materials were used as received. Solutions of each material were dissolved in reagent grade acetone. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) spectra of the samples were taken at 20 kV accelerating voltage on a Zeiss EVO50-EP SEM with EDAX system. Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) images were taken with Asylum MFP-3D. Absorption spectra were measured with a VWR 1600PC UV-Vis spectrophotometer.

Example 19

(97) Quantum dots having the formula of sample NP1 from Example 2 (AgInS.sub.2 (AIS)) were synthesized by combining a 1:1 molar ratio of AgNO.sub.3 and In(NO.sub.3).sub.3 with 2 molar equivalents of diethyldithiocarbamate and stirred vigorously in water for 15 minutes. The powder was then filtered and dried under vacuum overnight. 50 g. of the powder was then placed in a 50 ml round bottom flask and heated without solvent at about 180 C. for about 30 minutes under a nitrogen environment with vigorous stirring. An excess amount of dodecylamine (10 mL) was added quickly using an 18 gauge needle and a 12 mL plastic syringe to the powder with continued stirring and heating and after 3 minutes the solution was removed from the heat and immediately centrifuged.

(98) After addition of the 10 mL of dodecylamine, the resulting solution was only heated for 3 minutes; variations in this timing can be used to yield quantum dots with a slightly different spectral position of the max emission peak.

(99) The quantum dots were then isolated by centrifugation with methanol. For use and testing, the quantum dots were dispersed in chloroform at a concentration of 1 mg/ml.

Example 20

(100) Separate samples of solid energetic materials, TNT, CL-20, and RDX, at various concentrations were prepared by weighing out the appropriate amount of solid energetic materials in a glass vial and dissolving them in acetone. Acetone was added to each AIS quantum dots solution to maintain the dilution factor. For each energetic material analysis a glass vial was filled with 1 mL of AIS quantum dots solution followed by the addition of 2 mL of the energetic material solution. This was done for all of the solutions prepared and either acetone or energetic material (dissolved in acetone) was added to maintain a 1:2 ratio by volume of AIS quantum dots to energetic material. Emission spectrum are illustrated in FIG. 14a; each emission spectrum is representative data from at least three different sample runs and all data collected were from the same batch of quantum dots. Visible changes, were noticed within a few seconds for TNT sensing on paper substrates. Incubation times of about 1 minute were examined and data were collected, however, emission spectra were collected after 1 hour of incubation after adding the two solutions, which were left undisturbed during this period.

Example 21

(101) The AIS quantum dots of Example 19 where exposed to various energetic chemicals to evaluate any selectivity in the quenching of the quantum dots. FIG. 14a depicts the emission spectra of the AIS quantum dots when exposed to no energetic (top spectra), 10 mM RDX (second from the top spectra), 10 mM CL-20 (third spectra), and 10 mM TNT (bottom spectra). The AIS quantum dot fluorescence response is from a 1:2 ratio, per volume, of quantum dot to energetic solution. FIG. 14a shows the selectivity of AIS quantum dots depicting relatively small changes in the emission intensity for 10 mM RDX and 10 mM CL-20 in comparison to the emission of 10 mM TNT solution. To further evaluate the selectivity of AIS quantum dots towards nitroaromatic chemicals, FIG. 14b shows the selectivity plot of AIS quantum dots when exposed to TNT, RDX, and CL-20 where I.sub.o corresponds to the max emission intensity at 600 nm for AIS quantum dots with no energetic and I corresponds to the max emission intensity at 600 nm for the different energetic chemicals. In this example the TNT interacts with the AIS quantum dot metal core to quench the emission. RDX and CL-20 molecules have some interaction with the quantum dot core, but to a lesser extent.

(102) Possible solvent compatibility issues with solution based sensing can be avoided by incorporating the nanomaterials into a solid state test strip type device. For example, the present AIS QDs are suspendable in chloroform, but real world applications may require TNT sensing in soil or water, neither of which are compatible with chloroform. By removing solvents and utilizing a solid state test strip type device the detection can be done on a wider variety of samples. One embodiment of the present invention is a solid state test sensor using the AIS quantum dots as a fluorometric probe without solvent on low cost filter paper substrates and cotton swabs. A key advantage of AIS QDs is their low toxicity when compared to other heavy metal based chalcogenide QDs. As a result, developing a portable QD sensor on a low cost substrate is of great interest and could have environmental applications.

(103) One embodiment of the present invention is a simple patterning process that can be used with various nanomaterials and when combined with microfluidics results in low cost, low sample consumption, portable field sensor for TNT detection. The versatility of the current AIS QDs is beneficial as these nanomaterials can be used in solution and as well as in a solid form for portable detection and screening of TNT.

Example 22

(104) Filter papers were soaked with photoresist and photolithography was used to pattern the photoresist onto the surface of the filter papers. To test the optical emission and stability of the patterned sample (i.e. dry AIS QDs) the patterned substrate was placed in a fluorimeter and the emission before and after exposure to TNT was measured. FIG. 15a shows the emission response of the patterned QDs in the solid state. AIS QDs were solution cast onto a patterned filter paper (solid line) and the emission response (grey line) was collected after placing a few drops of 5 mM TNT onto the patterned areas. The dotted line black spectrum shows the emission response of photoresist on a filter paper in the absence of AIS QDs and the dashed line black spectrum shows the emission of the patterned area without photoresist and AIS QDs. The line spectrum shows a large background due to the auto fluorescence and optical light scattering of the SU-8 coated filter paper. There is a small red shift in the max emission for filter paper based AIS QDs (2 nm) and FWHM for the layout is 130 nm. An important analytic consequence of this patterning method is that it allows for the detection of TNT and possibly other analytes by eye. Optical images of patterned AIS QDs on paper substrates before and after exposure to 10 mM TNT are shown in optical image on the left of FIG. 15b. The AIS QDs were patterned into seven discrete line patterns that are 1 mm wide and 15 mm long. As depicted in optical image on the right in FIG. 15b, the quenching of three lines of AIS QDs is observed upon exposure to 10 mM TNT.

(105) AIS QDs can also be placed onto cotton swabs for a portable platform to TNT sensing, and a related example would require a portable substrate that can be used in a test kit for analysis and for the determination of TNT in soil and water for real world applications.

Example 23

(106) AIS QDs were suspended in a cotton swab fiber as shown in FIG. 15c. The figure shows a cotton swab with dry AIS QDs before and after exposure to 1 mM TNT solution. Visible changes were noticed within a few seconds of exposure to the TNT for both filter and cotton based sensors. As shown, these nanomaterials can be used in a portable test kit for TNT detection. Collectively, these results demonstrate a test bed device and application of these nanomaterials in a portable low cost TNT sensor.

Example 24

(107) To demonstrate the detection of TNT molecules by eye, nanoparticle compositions from Example 18 were patterned onto filter paper (Whatman #1 filter paper) by using conventional photolithographic processing of a negative photoresist (Microchem SU-8). Filter papers were soaked in SU-8 and allowed to prebake at 95 C. until dry. A broadband UV source (OAI) through a chrome mask was used to pattern the SU-8 onto the filter papers followed by a post bake at 95 C. for 3 minutes and developed in SU-8 developer for 3 minutes. The as-prepared patterns were subsequently soaked in a 1 mg/ml AIS QD solution in chloroform for 2 minutes, removed from the QD solution, and then heated for 1 minute at 90 C. in order to help with the solvent removal. Due to the solvophobic nature of SU-8 photoresist, and the presence of the photoresist through the thickness of the filter paper, the QD's deposited into the clear sections of the filter paper. Due to the high surface area of the fibers in the paper, a relatively high concentration was deposited. By this method, the patterning of the AIS QDs onto low cost paper substrates was achieved. For the cotton swab demonstration, a cotton swab was soaked in a 1 mg/ml solution (10 ml) of AIS QDs and allowed to dry prior to analysis. The photolithographic patterns are so that we can pattern the QDs in a specific section and then the idea was to use microfluidics to infill each photo-defined pattern with a different QD that is selective to TNT, or other materials. The photo-defined pattern helps concentrate the QDs into one area resulting in a cleaner approach then having the entire filter paper filled with QDs as it helps with minimizing the amount of QDs used and also helps eliminate thickness (amounts of QDs) variations that could distort the signal response.

Example 25

(108) Preferably, any fluorescence changes induced by exposure to an analyte are complete within less than about 5 seconds. It was observed in all examples that fluorescence changes induced by exposure to an analyte were effectively occurring instantaneously. Additional observations show that once the fluorescence changes were induced, the changes neither reversed nor varied over time.

(109) While the invention has been described, disclosed, illustrated and shown in various terms of certain embodiments or modifications which it has presumed in practice, the scope of the invention is not intended to be, nor should it be deemed to be, limited thereby and such other modifications or embodiments as may be suggested by the teachings herein are particularly reserved especially as they fall within the breadth and scope of the claims here appended.