LAYERED THERMOCHROMIC DEVICE FOR ENHANCED INFRARED EMISSION, AND METHOD FOR MAKING THE SAME

Abstract

A layered thermochromic device for enhanced infrared emission, and method for creating the same is disclosed. The method includes deposing a spacer layer of HfO.sub.2 upon a metallic layer, spin coating the spacer layer with photoresist, exposing the photoresist with a photomask, creating a plurality of holes in the photoresist, and deposing vanadium on the photoresist and the plurality of holes, filling the holes and forming vanadium microdisks on the spacer layer. The method also includes removing the photoresist and the vanadium deposed on the photoresist, and forming a thermochromic layer having VO.sub.2 coupled to the spacer layer through direct oxidation of the deposed vanadium microdisks by heating the device in a furnace under a nitrogen/oxygen flow. The device includes a metallic layer, a spacer layer coupled to the metallic layer, and a thermochromic layer deposed on the spacer layer opposite the metallic layer.

Claims

1. A method for creating a layered thermochromic device for enhanced infrared emission, comprising: deposing a spacer layer of HfO.sub.2 upon a metallic layer; spin coating the spacer layer with photoresist, opposite the metallic layer; exposing the photoresist with a photomask, creating a plurality of holes in the photoresist; deposing vanadium on the photoresist and the plurality of holes, filling the holes and forming vanadium microdisks on the spacer layer; removing the photoresist and the vanadium deposed on the photoresist; and forming a thermochromic layer comprising VO.sub.2 coupled to the spacer layer through direct oxidation of the deposed vanadium microdisks by heating the device in a furnace under a nitrogen/oxygen flow.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the metallic layer is a layer of aluminum deposed on a silicon substrate.

3. The method of claim 1, wherein the insulating layer of HfO.sub.2 is deposed upon the metallic layer through atomic layer deposition.

4. The method of claim 1, wherein the vanadium is deposed using electron beam evaporation.

5. A method for creating a layered thermochromic device for enhanced infrared emission, comprising: deposing a spacer layer on a metallic layer; deposing a thermochromic layer on the spacer layer opposite the metallic layer.

6. The method of claim 5, wherein the metallic layer is a layer of aluminum deposed on a silicon substrate.

7. The method of claim 5, wherein deposing the spacer layer on the metallic layer comprises deposing silicon upon the metallic layer through RF magnetron sputtering.

8. The method of claim 5, wherein deposing the spacer layer on the metallic layer comprises deposing an insulating layer of HfO.sub.2 upon the metallic layer through atomic layer deposition.

9. The method of claim 5, wherein deposing the thermochromic layer on the spacer layer comprises: deposing vanadium on the spacer layer; and forming VO.sub.2 coupled to the spacer layer through direct oxidation of the deposed vanadium by heating the device in a furnace under a nitrogen/oxygen flow.

10. The method of claim 9, wherein deposing vanadium on the spacer layer comprises: spin coating the spacer layer with photoresist; exposing the photoresist with a photomask, creating a plurality of holes in the photoresist; deposing vanadium on the photoresist and the plurality of holes, filling the holes and forming vanadium microdisks on the spacer layer; and removing the photoresist and the vanadium deposed on the photoresist.

11. The method of claim 9, wherein the vanadium is deposed using electron beam evaporation.

12. A layered thermochromic device for enhanced infrared emission, comprising: a metallic layer; a spacer layer coupled to the metallic layer; and a thermochromic layer deposed on the spacer layer opposite the metallic layer.

13. The device of claim 12, wherein the metallic layer is a layer of aluminum deposed on a silicon substrate.

14. The device of claim 12, wherein the spacer layer is composed of silicon.

15. The device of claim 12, wherein the thermochromic layer comprises VO.sub.2.

16. The device of claim 15, wherein the thermochromic layer further comprises vanadium, in addition to VO.sub.2.

17. The device of claim 12, wherein the spacer layer is composed of HfO.sub.2.

18. The device of claim 17, wherein the thermochromic layer comprises a plurality of microdisks distributed across the spacer layer, repeating with a period.

19. The device of claim 18, wherein each microdisk of the plurality of microdisks comprises a circular cross section, a diameter, and a height.

20. The device of claim 19, wherein the height is at least 100 nm, the diameter is at most 1.1 μm, and the period is at least 1.6 μm.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0019] The disclosure will hereinafter be described in conjunction with the appended drawings, where like designations denote like elements, and:

[0020] FIG. 1 is a schematic view of a layered thermochromic device for enhanced infrared emission;

[0021] FIG. 2 is a schematic view of another embodiment of a layered thermochromic device for enhanced infrared emission;

[0022] FIG. 3 is a close-up schematic view of the layered thermochromic device of FIG. 2;

[0023] FIG. 4 is a process flow of a method for fabricating a layered thermochromic device for enhanced infrared emission;

[0024] FIG. 5 is a process flow showing various stages of a method for fabricating a layered thermochromic device having microdisks;

[0025] FIG. 6 is a schematic view of a furnace used for fabricating a layered thermochromic device;

[0026] FIGS. 7A-7E are various measures of the performance of a layered thermochromic device having a microdisk architecture;

[0027] FIG. 8 shows calculated radiative cooling powers the layered thermochromic device of FIG. 1; and

[0028] FIGS. 9A-9D are schematic views showing a layered thermochromic device in operation.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0029] This disclosure, its aspects and implementations, are not limited to the specific material types, components, methods, or other examples disclosed herein. Many additional material types, components, methods, and procedures known in the art are contemplated for use with particular implementations from this disclosure. Accordingly, for example, although particular implementations are disclosed, such implementations and implementing components may comprise any components, models, types, materials, versions, quantities, and/or the like as is known in the art for such systems and implementing components, consistent with the intended operation.

[0030] The word “exemplary,” “example,” or various forms thereof are used herein to mean serving as an example, instance, or illustration. Any aspect or design described herein as “exemplary” or as an “example” is not necessarily to be construed as preferred or advantageous over other aspects or designs. Furthermore, examples are provided solely for purposes of clarity and understanding and are not meant to limit or restrict the disclosed subject matter or relevant portions of this disclosure in any manner. It is to be appreciated that a myriad of additional or alternate examples of varying scope could have been presented, but have been omitted for purposes of brevity.

[0031] While this disclosure includes a number of embodiments in many different forms, there is shown in the drawings and will herein be described in detail particular embodiments with the understanding that the present disclosure is to be considered as an exemplification of the principles of the disclosed methods and systems, and is not intended to limit the broad aspect of the disclosed concepts to the embodiments illustrated.

[0032] Heat can be a problem for a broad range of technologies. Whether there is too much heat, or too little, thermal control can play an important role in applications ranging from terrestrial building materials to spacecraft. Of particular interest is passive thermal control through selective radiative heat dissipation. Specifically, devices or even coatings whose infrared emittance varies with temperature are desirable for a number of applications.

[0033] In human spacecraft missions, variable heat rejection radiators can prevent the freezing of transport fluids, enabling single loop thermal control and leading to considerable mass conservation. In robotic missions, variable heat rejection radiators can minimize or eliminate the need for survival heater power by adapting their heat rejection to changes in spacecraft heat load or thermal environment. Thermochromic variable-emittance radiators, which passively change their emittance based on radiator temperature, are an appealing option for variable heat rejection since they require no electrical input to switch and add a small amount of mass.

[0034] The performance of radiative heat dissipation through a surface depends heavily on the radiative properties of the surface, which are usually static or a weak function of temperature. Dynamic control of radiative properties has attracted increasing interest because of the ability to adapt to the changing environment and the promise of greater energy savings. One key to dynamic radiative thermal control lies in materials whose radiative properties are tunable in response to external stimuli. Among those chromogenic materials, vanadium dioxide (VO.sub.2) attracts lots of research attention as it exhibits a reversible phase transition from an insulating state to a metallic state when its temperature exceeds 68° C. This structural change causes a significant change in infrared optical properties, making VO.sub.2 attractive for dynamic radiation control.

[0035] However, conventional thermochromic-based coatings and devices suffer from various problems. Some have shown promising results in theoretical studies, but will be difficult to fabricate (e.g., many layers, thick layers, etc.). Others require fabrication methods that will be prohibitively expensive to scale up for practical applications. Still others exhibit a phase transition that occurs outside the temperature range of interest, or they do not have spectral selectivity within the atmospheric IR window. Additionally, few conventional thermochromic-based coatings and devices have been demonstrated to have variable heat rejection in a space-like environment.

[0036] One challenge in utilizing VO.sub.2 for dynamic thermal control is that the emittance of a pristine VO.sub.2 film decreases as it becomes metallic. This means that at high temperatures, when cooling is most desired, the emittance has actually dropped. Nanophotonic and metamaterial structures have been proposed to address this property mismatch and achieve the desired switch of thermal emittance. VO.sub.2-based multilayer devices have been theoretically designed for active radiative cooling and radiative thermostats. For example, a metasurface absorber was theoretically proposed that combined VO.sub.2 with hBN (hexagonal boron nitride). However, very few studies have experimentally achieved significantly increased emissivity at higher temperatures with VO.sub.2-based metamaterials. Additionally, the rare examples that exhibit tunable infrared emittance are fabricated using processes that will be difficult and/or expensive to scale to a level beyond laboratory experiments.

[0037] Contemplated herein are layered thermochromic devices for enhanced infrared emission, and methods for fabricating the same. Specifically, contemplated herein is a spectrally-selective VO.sub.2 based variable-emittance device for enhanced infrared emission and dynamic radiative thermal control. According to various embodiments, this multi-layered, tunable device may be used to create passive, dynamic emitters that decrease thermal emission at low temperatures and increase thermal emission at higher temperatures. The contemplated device decreases its emittance at low temperatures to prevent further temperature decrease through reduced thermal emission loss, and increases its emittance to promote the radiative cooling effect and thereby decrease the temperature when the temperature is higher than the phase transition temperature.

[0038] According to various embodiments, the contemplated device exhibits desirable emittance behavior within a desirable temperature range and emits within a desirable spectrum. A fourfold increase in total emittance has been observed in an exemplary device as it increased from room temperature to 100° C. Advantageously, this device emits IR radiation at around 10 μm, which is within the atmospheric IR window. Furthermore, the contemplated device may be fabricated using techniques that are scalable, unlike some conventional VO.sub.2-based metamaterials.

[0039] This variable thermal emission would be useful for applications in both spacecraft and building thermal management. For spacecraft thermal control, an ideal device would have near-zero emittance to provide a thermal insulation effect when the spacecraft temperature is low to prevent the freezing of transport fluids and electronics. Conversely, at high temperatures the device would have close-to-unity emittance in the broad infrared wavelengths to maximize heat rejection by the radiator. This temperature-dependent behavior would permit the spacecraft to passively respond to changes in internal heat load or thermal environment.

[0040] Spacecraft are subjected to extreme temperatures, both cold and hot. Besides exposure to extreme temperatures, thermal cycling may also be of concern for spacecraft thermal control, where the device may be subject to changing heat loads when facing toward or away from the Sun. The device contemplated herein has been demonstrated to have desired dynamic heat rejection, temperature stability, and durable under thermal cycling in extreme environments, like those experienced in space (e.g., 77 K, 200° C.).

[0041] Likewise, a tunable radiative device with variable emittance could help to reduce energy consumption in buildings by limiting heat loss in cold weather with low emittance or promoting heat dissipation in warm weather by selectively emitting heat within the 8-13 μm atmospheric window to outer space.

[0042] Other embodiments of the contemplated thermochromic VO.sub.2-based device comprise nano-sized VO.sub.2 structures which are fabricated on a HfO.sub.2 surface using an etch-free process, resulting in a VO.sub.2 device with improved heat dissipation and emission properties. As a specific example, HfO.sub.2 may be deposed on a layer of aluminum. The contemplated nano-structured VO.sub.2 device exhibits a three-fold improvement in total emittance and a six-fold increase in radiative thermal conductance upon phase change when compared to a non-nanostructured VO.sub.2 film, according to various embodiments. As will be discussed in greater detail below, the augmented infrared emission of some embodiments of the contemplated device is provided through thermally switching the excitation of magnetic polariton (MP).

[0043] Advantageous over other VO.sub.2-based materials, some embodiments of the contemplated layered thermochromic device are better able to withstand thermal strain. Rather than employing a thin film of VO.sub.2, said embodiments comprise an array of VO.sub.2 microdisks formed on the surface of a HfO.sub.2 layer, and are able to withstand the strain of cycling between two temperatures, repeatedly expanding and contracting. Furthermore, these embodiments of the contemplated device are able to be tuned in ways not available to conventional materials, in theory or practice, without relying on difficult or expensive fabrication methods.

[0044] According to various embodiments, these devices may be used for a variety of applications including, but not limited to, near-field thermophotonic devices for noncontact thermal power conversion, radiative refrigeration, heat control, and the like. The structures and methods contemplated herein may be adapted for use with other materials and/or geometries for applications at other wavelengths and/or temperatures.

[0045] Furthermore, it should be noted that while this discussion mentions applications within spacecraft and building materials, those are meant to be nothing more than non-limiting examples. Those skilled in the art will recognize that a variable-emittance device for dynamic radiative cooling and thermal control will have a wide range of applications, on Earth and in space.

[0046] FIG. 1 is a schematic view of a non-limiting example of a tunable, spectrally-selective, layered thermochromic device for enhanced infrared emission. As shown, the contemplated layered thermochromic device for enhanced infrared emission 100 (hereinafter “device”) comprises a metallic layer 102, a spacer layer 104 coupled to the metallic layer 102, and a thermochromic layer 106 deposed on the spacer layer 104 opposite the metallic layer 102. Each will be discussed in greater detail, below.

[0047] It should be noted that while the contemplated thermochromic devices contemplated herein are referred to as “devices”, according to various embodiments they could also be called metasurfaces, metafilms, coatings, and the like. Those skilled in the art will recognize that the contemplated layered architecture may be referred to using various terms, depending on the context. For example, the non-limiting example of a device 100 shown in FIG. 1, implemented with a metallic layer 102 that includes a silicon substrate 110 may be device-like, while the same structure deposed on the metallic exterior of a spacecraft rather than a mirrored substrate could also be called a coating. While the following disclosure will continue to use the term “device”, that term should not be taken to be a limitation. According to various embodiments, the architectures contemplated herein may be implemented in ways that could also be described as surfaces, metasurfaces, metafilms, coatings, and the like, in addition to “device”.

[0048] According to various embodiments, the device 100 comprises a metallic layer 102 which, combined with the spacer layer 104, forms a Fabry-Perot resonance cavity structure when the thermochromic layer 106 is also metallic. In some embodiments, the metallic layer 102 may be an opaque layer of aluminum 108. For example, in one embodiment, the metallic layer may be an aluminum layer 108 deposed on a silicon substrate 110. In some embodiments, the aluminum layer 108 may have a thickness of 200 nm. In other embodiments, the aluminum layer 108 may be of different thicknesses, so long as it is opaque (i.e., more than 100 nm thick). In some embodiments, the aluminum layer 108 may be a thin aluminum foil, while in other embodiments, the aluminum layer 108 may be a surface of a much larger aluminum structure.

[0049] In some embodiments, the device 100 may be applied to an aluminum layer 108. In other embodiments, the device 100 may be applied to other metals including, but not limited to, gold, tungsten, and silver. Aluminum 108 is an attractive material because it is cost effective with sufficiently good optical properties.

[0050] The spacer layer 104 is between the metallic layer 102 and the thermochromic layer 106. By separating the two metallic layers (i.e., metallic layer 102 and the thermochromic layer 106 in a metallic state) with the spacer layer 104, a Fabry-Perot resonance cavity may be formed. Modifying this cavity allows the properties of the contemplated device 100 to be tuned. According to some embodiments, the spacer layer 104 is composed of silicon 112. The high refractive index of the silicon 112 enables a much smaller spacer thickness to be used, while the lack of strong phonon modes in the infrared regime makes it possible to achieve spectral selectivity in the atmospheric window, which is advantageous in many applications.

[0051] In some embodiments, the thickness of the silicon spacer layer 104 may be 500 nm. The thickness of the spacer layer 104 will mainly shift the spectral emittance peak of the device 100. Other embodiments may employ a different material for the spacer layer 104; however, the thickness would need to be tuned to compensate for the different optical properties, to arrive at the same desired spectral selectivity.

[0052] According to various embodiments, the thermochromic layer 106 comprises VO.sub.2 114. In some embodiments, the VO.sub.2 114 may be a thin film. At low temperatures, the VO.sub.2 114 is insulating and the device 100 takes on the high reflectance of the metallic layer 102 (e.g., the aluminum layer 108), thereby minimizing radiation losses. On the other hand, the VO.sub.2 114 is metallic at high temperatures, forming a Fabry-Perot resonance cavity and producing the corresponding emittance enhancement near the resonance wavelength (e.g., λ=10 μm, etc.). This switch in emittance yields the variable heat rejection sought for in many thermal control applications.

[0053] According to various embodiments, the thermochromic layer 106 comprising VO.sub.2 114 is significantly thinner than the spacer 104 and metallic 102 layers. According to various embodiments, the VO.sub.2 114 thickness affects the magnitudes of spectral emittance in both phases, as well as the degree of variation upon thermochromic phase transition. Thus, the various properties of the contemplated thermochromic device 100 may be tuned by simply varying the thickness of the component layers. As a specific example, one embodiment of the contemplated device 100 has a thermochromic layer 106 of VO.sub.2 114 that is 60 nm thick, a silicon spacer layer 104 that is 500 nm thick, and an aluminum 108 metallic layer 102 that is at least 200 nm thick, resulting in a resonance wavelength of roughly 10 μm.

[0054] It should be noted that while all of the examples of thermochromic layers 106 discussed herein comprise VO.sub.2 114, those skilled in the art will recognize that the contemplated structures and fabrication methods may be adapted for use with other thermochromic materials.

[0055] Some embodiments of the contemplated device 100 may comprise a continuous thermochromic layer 106 that substantially covers the spacer layer 104. This architecture has the benefit of simple and inexpensive fabrication methods, which will be discussed further in the context of FIGS. 4 and 6, below. However, one problem shared by many multilayer devices is that they are not very resilient to thermal stress. Mismatched coefficients of thermal expansion between layers can lead to delamination, cracking, and failure of the device as it cycles between high and low temperatures, the exact conditions where the devices contemplated herein are intended to operate.

[0056] FIG. 2 is a schematic view of a non-limiting example of another embodiment of a layered thermochromic device 200 for enhanced infrared emission. Like the device 100 shown in FIG. 1, this device 200 comprises a metallic layer 102 bonded with a spacer layer 104 which is topped with a thermochromic layer 106. As shown, in some embodiments of the contemplated device 200, including the non-limiting example shown in FIG. 2, the thermochromic layer 106 may be composed of a collection of microdisks 202, thermochromic structures that have been deposed on top of the spacer layer 104, but that do not entirely cover the spacer layer 104. The method of fabrication will be discussed in greater detail with respect to FIGS. 5 and 6, below.

[0057] According to various embodiments, the spacer layer 104 is composed of HfO.sub.2 204, an insulator. The HfO.sub.2 layer serves as an insulator separating the metallic layer 102 (e.g., a layer of aluminum 108, etc.) from a metallic-phase thermochromic layer 106 of VO.sub.2 114 microdisks 202, resulting in a magnetic polariton (MP) excitation leading to the desired emissivity. In some embodiments, this insulating layer may be composed of HfO.sub.2 204, which provides the advantages of being a high temperature material that can be deposed in high quality layers using atomic layer deposition. As a specific example, in one embodiment, the HfO.sub.2 204 spacer layer 104 may be 300 nm thick. Other embodiments may employ a spacer layer 104 composed of different insulators including, but not limited to, aluminum oxide and silicon dioxide.

[0058] According to various embodiments, the insulating (e.g., HfO.sub.2 204) spacer layer 104 is deposed on a metallic surface. In some embodiments, including the non-limiting example shown in FIG. 2, the metallic surface may be a thin metallic layer 102. As a specific example, in one embodiment, the metallic layer 102 may be a 200 nm thick layer of aluminum 108. As an option, the metallic layer 102 may be deposed on an appropriate substrate, such as a silicon wafer 110. In other embodiments, the metallic surface may be a surface that is part of a larger metallic structure, such as a device that is the recipient of the dynamic thermal control provided by the contemplated device 200.

[0059] This contemplated architecture employing a thermochromic layer 106 made up of a plurality of microdisks 202 is tunable and spectrally-selective, while also being much more resistant to the problems caused by mismatched indices of thermal expansion. This is due, in part, to the spacing between microdisks 202.

[0060] FIG. 3 is a close-up schematic view of the non-limiting example of a layered thermochromic device shown in FIG. 2. In some embodiments, these microdisks 202 may be pure VO.sub.2 114, while in other embodiments, the microdisks 202 may comprise both VO.sub.2 114 and pure vanadium, with the pure vanadium between the insulator and the VO.sub.2 114. The method of fabrication will be discussed in greater detail with respect to FIGS. 5 and 6, below.

[0061] As shown, each microdisk 202 of the plurality of microdisks 202 has a height 306 (i.e., the thickness of the thermochromic layer 104). In some embodiments, including the non-limiting example shown in FIGS. 2 and 3, each microdisk 202 may have a circular cross section 302 having a diameter 304. Other embodiments may comprise microdisks 202 with a cross-section having less symmetry (e.g., oval, polygon, etc.). In still other embodiments, the plurality of microdisks 202 may comprise subsets that each have a different cross section.

[0062] Those skilled in the art will recognize that the methods used to create the microdisks 202 (to be discussed below in the context of FIGS. 5 and 6), in some embodiments, can result in small variances in the shape of the fabricated structure, and that claiming that the microdisks 202 have a cross section 302 of a particular shape allows for the small variances inherent to the fabrication method used, be it photolithography or otherwise.

[0063] In some embodiments, the VO.sub.2 microdisks 202 are deposed in a uniform, repeating pattern having a period 300. While the non-limiting example shown in FIGS. 2 and 3 employs a repeating pattern that is symmetric in along two orthogonal directions, other embodiments may employ repeating patterns with differing degrees or types of symmetry (e.g., a pattern having two periods, a pattern with radial symmetry, etc.).

[0064] According to various embodiments, the microdisks 202 may be one or more orders of magnitude wider than they are tall. As a specific example, in one embodiment, the microdisks 202 may be 100 nm tall, with a diameter of 1.1 μm and a period of 1.6 μm. As will be discussed below, various aspects of the device's 200 properties may be tuned by the diameter 304, height 306, and period 300 of the thermochromic microdisks 202.

[0065] FIG. 4 shows a process flow of a non-limiting example of a method 400 for fabricating a layered thermochromic device 100 for enhanced infrared emission and dynamic thermal control. This fabrication method 400 readily allows for various thicknesses of the different layers to allow for a tunable device 100 for whatever requirements are needed for a specific application. It is important to note that the following exemplary fabrication process is provided with specific layer thicknesses. These thicknesses should not be taken as a limitation, but rather a non-limiting example. As previously stated, the layer thicknesses may be adjusted to tune various properties of the device 100 for specific applications.

[0066] First, 200 nm of aluminum 108 is deposited via electron beam evaporation (e.g., using a Lesker PVD75 Electron Beam Evaporator, etc.) from aluminum pellets (e.g., 99.99% pure) onto a silicon substrate 110. See ‘circle 1’. As a specific example, in one embodiment, the substrate 110 is a 385-μm-thick double-side-polished lightly-doped silicon substrate of 1 inch squares. The silicon substrates 110 are pre-cleaned with isopropyl alcohol and blow dried with compressed nitrogen gas. According to various embodiments, the base pressure of the deposition chamber may be 1×10.sup.−6 Torr and the deposition rate may be maintained at 2.5 Å/s throughout the deposition.

[0067] After the formation of the metallic layer 102, a silicon spacer layer 104 is deposed on the metallic layer 102 (i.e., aluminum 108 on a silicon substrate 110) through RF magnetron sputtering (e.g., using a Lesker PVD75 Sputterer, etc.) from an undoped monocrystalline silicon target. See ‘circle 2’. According to various embodiments, the base pressure of the sputtering chamber may be 5×10.sup.−7 Torr and the deposition pressure may be held at 7.0 mTorr. According to various embodiments, a power of 135 W is used for the deposition, which may yield a silicon deposition rate of 0.4 Å/s. Due to concerns with substrate heating, in some embodiments, the silicon 112 may be deposited in three 150-200 nm intervals, with half an hour allotted for substrate cooling in between each interval. The vacuum remains unbroken throughout the entire silicon spacer deposition, in some embodiments.

[0068] Finally, a VO.sub.2 114 thin film (i.e., the thermochromic layer 106) is prepared on the spacer layer 104, opposite the metallic layer 102, using a two-stage thermal oxidation process. In the first step, a pure vanadium 402 film is deposited on the spacer layer 104 using electron beam evaporation (e.g., with a Lesker PVD75 Electron Beam Evaporator, etc.). See ‘circle 3’. Then the vanadium 402 precursor thin film is directly oxidized. The formation of VO.sub.2 114 after vanadium 402 has been deposed on the spacer layer 104 will be discussed in greater detail with respect to FIG. 6, below.

[0069] In other embodiments, one or more of these layers may be fabricated using different methods. For example, in some embodiments, at least one of the Al layer (i.e., metallic layer 102) and the Si layer (i.e., spacer layer 104) may be deposited with other methods known in the art. Sputtering is well known in the art, and is scalable to cover large areas and nonplanar geometries. It should also be noted that in the context of the present description and the claims that follow, stating that a layer or material is “deposed” on another layer or material, without greater specificity, should not be taken to limit the fabrication method to those traditionally referred to as a deposition (e.g., vapor deposition, etc.). Instead,

[0070] In some embodiments, the VO.sub.2 114 thin film layer may be fabricated with a process other than the two-stage thermal oxidation to be discussed in the context of FIG. 6. For example, in some embodiments, the VO.sub.2 114 can be deposited by methods such as reactive magnetron sputtering or vapor deposition, as is known in the art. However, it should be noted that the furnace oxidation technique for fabricating the thermochromic VO.sub.2 layer contemplated herein is advantageously scalable.

[0071] FIG. 5 is a process flow showing a non-limiting example of various stages of a method 500 for fabricating a layered thermochromic device 200 having microdisks 202. According to various embodiments, the device 200 is fabricated starting with a metallic surface (i.e., metallic layer 102). In some embodiments, the metallic layer 102 may be part of a larger structure. In other embodiments, the metallic layer 102 may be a metal film deposed on a substrate 110. See ‘circle 1’. As a specific example, in one embodiment, starting with a lightly doped silicon wafer (e.g., resistivity >20 Ω.Math.cm, from Virginia Semiconductor Inc.), a 200 nm thick layer of aluminum 108 is deposited using electron beam evaporation (e.g., Lesker PVD75 Electron Beam Evaporator) at a deposition rate of 1 Å/s and pressure of 5×10−6 Torr.

[0072] Next, an insulating spacer layer 104 is deposed on the metallic layer 102. See ‘circle 2’. In some embodiments, the insulating spacer layer 104 is a layer of HfO.sub.2 204. As a specific example, in one embodiment, a 300 nm thick layer of HfO.sub.2 204 is deposited by atomic layer deposition (e.g., Cambridge Savannah ALD Deposition Tool) with a tetrakis-(dimethylamino)hafnium (TDAHF) precursor at a growth rate of 1 Å per cycle.

[0073] According to various embodiments, the VO.sub.2 microdisks 202 may be fabricated using an etch-free, scalable process that begins with the application of a layer of photoresist on the spacer (e.g., HfO.sub.2 204) layer 104. See ‘circle 3’. As a specific example, in one embodiment, photoresist (e.g., AZ 3312, AZ Electronic Materials) is spin coated on the HfO.sub.2 layer 204 with a speed of 5000 rpm.

[0074] The photoresist 502 is then exposed using a photomask 504 (see ‘circle 4’) to create holes 506 in the photoresist 502 (see ‘circle 5’), as is known in the art. These holes 506 will act as molds for the VO.sub.2 microdisks 202. In some embodiments, in order to achieve large areas, translational patterning may be implemented during the photolithography process with a stepper, as illustrated in FIG. 5. As a specific example, in one embodiment, the photoresist 502 is exposed in a GCA 8500 Stepper with 5× size reduction from the patterns on a photomask 504 (e.g., chrome mask on quartz substrate, Photo Science Inc.).

[0075] Once the holes 506 have been formed in the photoresist layer 502, the VO.sub.2 microdisks may be formed. In some embodiments, this is accomplished by first depositing pure vanadium 402, which is then oxidized to form VO.sub.2 114. This is advantageous over conventional methods of creating micro-structures of VO.sub.2 114, which require the use of etching on VO.sub.2 114 thin films, a process that is not practical on large scales, and which also results in decreased conformality among the microdisks 202.

[0076] As a specific example, in one embodiment, pure vanadium 402 (e.g., 99.99% purity, from Kurt J. Lesker Co.) is deposited on the photoresist 502 and the holes 506 with a thickness of 50 nm by electron beam evaporation at a deposition rate of 0.8 Å/s and pressure of 5×10−6 Torr. The photoresist 502 is then removed, leaving vanadium microdisks 508 on the surface of the spacer layer 104. See ‘circle 6’ Continuing the specific example, in the lift-off process, the residual photoresist 502 and extra vanadium 402 are removed by soaking in acetone and sonicating at room temperature for 1 minute.

[0077] Finally, the VO.sub.2 114 is formed by directly oxidizing the vanadium microdisks 508, according to various embodiments. This oxidation process will be discussed further in the context of FIG. 6, below. Continuing the specific example, the height 306 of the vanadium microdisks 508 is about 50 nm before oxidation but doubles to 100 mm after oxidation. Experimental results have shown that the period 300 and diameter 304 of the microdisks 202 does not change and the circular profile 302 is well preserved during the oxidation from V to VO.sub.2 using this method.

[0078] Those skilled in the art will note that, in some embodiments, some or all of the layers discussed above may be fabricated using different deposition and fabrication methods known in the art to arrive at the same final structure. The specific examples given should in no way be considered as limiting.

[0079] As previously mentioned, one of the advantages the contemplated device 200 has over other VO.sub.2-based materials is its thermal stability and resilience to thermal stress. The thermal stability of the contemplated device 200 has been tested by repeatedly heating and cooling samples for one hundred cycles. The spectral emittance at both low and high temperatures rarely changes, showing good thermal stability of the device

[0080] In some embodiments, a thermochromic layer 106 of VO.sub.2 114 may be deposited directly on the spacer layer 104. In other embodiments, this VO.sub.2 layer may be formed by oxidizing a vanadium layer that has been deposited on the spacer layer 104, as discussed in the context of both FIG. 4 and FIG. 5, in thin film and microdisk-type embodiments. FIG. 6 is a schematic view of a furnace used for the direct oxidation of vanadium as part of fabricating a non-limiting example of a layered thermochromic device. Specifically, after vanadium has been deposed on the spacer layer 104 (i.e., ‘circle 3’ of FIG. 4, ‘circle 6’ of FIG. 5), the VO.sub.2 114 may be formed by heating the device (i.e., device 100, device 200) in a furnace 600 under a nitrogen/oxygen flow 602, as shown.

[0081] As a specific example, in one embodiment, the device 100 shown in ‘circle 3’ of FIG. 4 is oxidized in a quartz tube furnace 600 (e.g., a Thermco Minibrute tube furnace, etc.) at 300° C. for three hours, under a flow 602 of O.sub.2 and N.sub.2. As another specific example, in one embodiment, the device 200 shown in ‘circle 6’ of FIG. 5 is oxidized in the quartz tube furnace 600 at 300° C. for eight hours, under a flow 602 of O.sub.2 and N.sub.2. In both embodiments, the O.sub.2 flow rate may be 0.5 SLPM and the N.sub.2 flow rate may be 60 SLPM throughout the oxidation.

[0082] In some embodiments, the vanadium 402 or vanadium microdisks 508 may be entirely oxidized into VO.sub.2 114 or VO.sub.2 microdisks 202. In other embodiments, the oxidation may be partial, resulting in a layer of vanadium 402 laying between the VO.sub.2 114 and the spacer layer 104.

[0083] FIGS. 7A-7E provide various measures of the performance of the embodiment previously described as a specific example, a non-limiting example of a layered thermochromic device 200. Specifically, FIG. 7A comprises FTIR measurements at different temperatures (i.e., 25, 50, 60, 65, 70, 75, 85, and 100° C.) with unpolarized light and near-normal incidence. FIG. 7B shows the emittance of the device 200 at λ=5 μm, as a function of temperature during the heating and cooling cycles. FIGS. 7C and 7D show incident angle θ dependent measurement of the emittance for the device 200 with metallic VO.sub.2 under TM (i.e., transverse magnetic waves; see FIG. 7C) and TE (i.e., transverse electric waves; see FIG. 7D) waves. FIG. 7E shows emittance at λ=5 μm, as a function of polarization angle γ at θ=45°.

[0084] As shown in FIG. 7A, when the temperature increases, the spectral emittance EX, measured at near-normal (i.e., 0=8°) gradually increases. Within the wavelength range from 2 to 10 μm, the device 200 shows relatively low emittance and one emission peak around the wavelength of 7 μm when the VO.sub.2 114 is insulating at 25° C. Once heated above the VO.sub.2 transition temperature where the insulating VO.sub.2 becomes metallic, the tunable device 200 exhibits dramatic changes in spectral emittance mainly due to the appearance of another major emission peak at a wavelength of λ≈5 μm. At temperature of 100° C., the emittance at both peak wavelengths of 7 and 5 μm almost reaches unity as a black surface. According to various embodiments, the spectral emittance of the tunable device 200 exhibits a significant variation with temperature, in particular, the emittance is much enhanced at higher temperatures after VO.sub.2 114 transits from insulator to metal. The pronouncedly enhanced infrared emittance spectrum, including the unity emittance at λ=5 μm, is due to the resonance excitation of magnetic polariton (MP) with metallic VO.sub.2.

[0085] As shown in FIG. 7B, at λ=5 μm of the thermally switchable peak, the temperature-dependent emittance changes from 0.2 to 1 going from 25 to 100° C. FIG. 7B also shows a typical hysteresis of ˜20° C. upon VO.sub.2 phase transition, between the heating and cooling curves.

[0086] A diffuse surface is usually preferred for radiative heat dissipation, to maximize the thermal emission radiated hemi-spherically to the environment. FTIR measurements at different incident angles θ and polarization angles φ demonstrate the angular and polarization dependency of the tunable device 200 emitter. FIGS. 7C and 7D provide the measured spectral emittance of the specific, non-limiting example, with metallic VO.sub.2 (100° C.) at different θ under transverse magnetic (TM, i.e., φ=90°) and transverse electric (TE, i.e., φ=0°) waves, respectively.

[0087] Under TM waves (FIG. 7C), the emittance peak near λ=7 μm is sensitive to incident angles, and splits into several peaks as the incident angle increases. On the other hand, the emittance peak at λ=5 μm with metallic VO.sub.2 is nearly angle-independent in both magnitude and location for θ<70°. The diffuse behavior of emission or absorption is one of the typical features of the MP excitation. Generally, MP can only be excited under TM waves (but not TE waves) for a 1D structure. The contemplated device 200 overcomes this limitation by employing symmetric structures of three dimensional microdisk arrays in order to maximize the thermal emission in both polarizations. As shown in FIG. 7D for TE waves, the measured spectral emittance changes little from normal direction to 0=60°.

[0088] FIG. 7E illustrates the polarization independency of the VO.sub.2 device 200. As shown, the peak emittance at λ=5 μm with metallic VO.sub.2 is measured at a fixed incidence angle θ=45° for multiple polarization angles φ from 0° to 180°. The high emittance is almost constant around 0.95, independent of polarization angles.

[0089] With the temperature-dependent tunable infrared emittance demonstrated in FIGS. 7A-7E, the contemplated VO.sub.2 device 200 holds great potential for enhancing radiative heat dissipation at high temperatures in a range of applications.

[0090] In some embodiments, such as the specific (though non-limiting) example provided above, the measured spectral emittance of the device 200 exhibits a total emittance enhanced more than threefold upon VO.sub.2 phase change, in addition to diffuse emission behavior with angular and polarization-independence. The augmentation of the infrared emittance (i.e., the switchable thermal emission peak at wavelength of λ=5 μm) is a consequence of thermally exciting or suppressing MP with either metallic or insulating VO.sub.2. The enhanced radiative heat dissipation of the tunable VO.sub.2 device 200 is almost a sixfold enhancement in radiative thermal conductance upon VO.sub.2 phase transition and more than threefold improvement over that of a static V.sub.2O.sub.5 emitter.

[0091] In some embodiments, the various properties of the contemplated devices 200 may be modified by manipulating various aspects of the device 200. For example, the radiative cooling performance of the device 200 can be modified or improved by tailoring the switchable VO.sub.2 emittance peak to best match the blackbody spectrum around the given operating temperatures, by changing microdisk geometry. In some embodiments, the location or wavelength of peak emissivity may be tuned by varying the diameter 304 of the microdisks 202. In other embodiments, the minor emissivity peaks may be manipulated by modifying the period 300 of the plurality of microdisks 202.

[0092] In some embodiments, the device 200 may be modified by manipulating the phase change temperature of the VO.sub.2 microdisks 202. For example, the phase change temperature of VO.sub.2 may be lowered by doping the microdisks 202 with transition metals like tungsten, to better serve applications implemented around room temperatures.

[0093] FIG. 8 shows calculated radiative cooling powers for extraterrestrial applications in outer space at 7 K (solid line) and for terrestrial applications with ambient temperature at 300 K (dashed line) for a non-limiting example of the contemplated thermochromic device 100. As shown, a significant switch upon the VO.sub.2 phase transition can be observed. For the extraterrestrial case, a cooling power difference of 510 W/m.sup.2 is achieved from 20° C. to 100° C., whereas for the terrestrial case a cooling power difference of 445 W/m.sup.2 is achieved. This clearly indicates good potential to use this non-limiting embodiment of the tunable VO.sub.2 device 100 as smart radiative cooling device for both terrestrial and extraterrestrial thermal control applications. In practical systems, a solar reflector can be incorporated to minimize the solar absorption during daytime and maximize the performance of the VO.sub.2-based dynamic radiative cooler. With respect to space applications, heat rejection, temperature stability, and resistance to thermal cycling has been confirmed for hot and cold outer space environments (e.g., pressure below 1×10.sup.−5 Torr, cryogenic temperatures, 200° C. temperatures, etc.).

[0094] In some embodiments, the VO.sub.2 phase transition temperature may be reduced to near room temperature, making the device 100 practical for building thermal control applications. This lowering of the transition temperature might be achieved via impurity doping (e.g., tungsten, etc.) and defect engineering with argon ion irradiation, according to various embodiments. As an option, doping may be performed during the fabrication of the VO.sub.2 layer 106. As a specific example, in one embodiment, the VO.sub.2 layer 106 may be doped with tungsten while the VO.sub.2 layer 106 is formed using a reactive magnetron sputtering process, a fabrication method for VO.sub.2 114 known in the art. In other embodiments, the doping may occur as part of the two-step furnace oxidation method (e.g., tungsten doping via diffusion process, etc.).

[0095] FIGS. 9A-9D are schematic views of a non-limiting example of a layered thermochromic device 100 with a thin-film architecture. Specifically, FIGS. 9A and 9B show dynamic radiative cooling at high and low temperature, respectively. FIG. 9C shows the behaviors of the tunable device 100 with metallic VO.sub.2 at high temperatures, while FIG. 9D shows the same device with insulating VO.sub.2 at low temperatures.

[0096] A well-performing selective radiative cooling device 100 should have high infrared (IR) emittance at high temperatures and low IR emittance at low temperatures. In some embodiments, the device 100 may have selectively high emittance around λ=10 μm, which corresponds to the peak thermal emission of a body at room temperature. When the VO.sub.2 114 is metallic, the Fabre-Perot cavity is formed and the structure has high broadband emittance around the target wavelength. See FIG. 9C. The emission enhancement also spans the 8-19 μm atmospheric window, which is desirable for terrestrial building cooling. On the other hand, when the VO.sub.2 114 is insulating at low temperatures, the emittance of the device 100 is minimized. See FIG. 9D. This is because the VO.sub.2 114 and silicon 112 layers are semi-transparent, while the aluminum substrate 108 is highly reflective. This change in emittance yields temperature-dependent heat rejection that can be used to design passive thermal management systems.

[0097] According to various embodiments, a fourfold increase in total emittance is observed with the device 100, when increasing the temperature from room temperature to 100° C. The infra-red (IR) emission peak is around 10 μm, which is within the preferred IR atmospheric window of 8-14 μm where there is relatively little absorption of terrestrial thermal radiation by atmospheric gases and where the emission can escape without absorption towards space.

[0098] With respect to the specular near-normal spectral reflectance, at room temperature the reflectance is over 90% for nearly all of the mid-infrared wavelength range, indicating that the emittance is less than 10% over most of the wavelength spectrum of interest, according to various embodiments. On the other hand, at 100° C., the spectral reflectance is only 5% near λ=9 μm, indicating that the emittance is 95%.

[0099] It will be understood that implementations are not limited to the specific components disclosed herein, as virtually any components consistent with the intended operation of a scalable layered thermochromic device and method for making the same may be utilized. Accordingly, for example, although particular materials and fabrication methods may be disclosed, such components and methods may comprise any shape, size, style, type, model, version, class, grade, measurement, concentration, material, weight, quantity, and/or the like consistent with the intended operation of a scalable layered thermochromic device and method for making the same may be used. In places where the description above refers to particular implementations of a layered thermochromic device and method for making the same, it should be readily apparent that a number of modifications may be made without departing from the spirit thereof and that these implementations may be applied to other devices and chromogenic materials.