Copper-doped double perovskites and uses thereof

Abstract

The present application relates to copper-doped double perovskites, for example, copper-doped double perovskites of the formula (I) and to uses thereof, for example as low-bandgap materials such as a semiconducting material in a device. The present application also relates to methods of tuning the bandgap of a Cs.sub.2SbAgZ.sub.6 double perovskite (for example, wherein Z is Cl) comprising doping the double perovskite with copper.
Cs.sub.2Sb.sub.1-aAg.sub.1-bCu.sub.2xZ.sub.6  (I)

Claims

1. An inorganic copper-doped double perovskite of the formula (I):
Cs.sub.2Sb.sub.1-aAg.sub.1-bCu.sub.2xZ.sub.6  (I) wherein Z is Cl or Br; a+b=2x; and x is in the range of from about 0.005 to about 0.25.

2. The inorganic copper-doped double perovskite of claim 1, wherein Z is Cl.

3. The inorganic copper-doped double perovskite of claim 1, wherein x is in the range of from about 0.005 to about 0.015.

4. The inorganic copper-doped double perovskite of claim 1, wherein x is about 0.10.

5. The inorganic copper-doped double perovskite of claim 1, having an optical indirect bandgap of less than 2.65 eV, as determined using a UV-Vis NIR spectrophotometer with each measurement being acquired between the wavelengths of 2500 nm and 200 nm.

6. The inorganic copper-doped double perovskite of claim 1, having an optical indirect bandgap of from about 1 eV to about 1.4 eV, as determined using a UV-Vis NIR spectrophotometer with each measurement being acquired between the wavelengths of 2500 nm and 200 nm.

7. The inorganic copper-doped double perovskite of claim 5, having no substantial change in the optical indirect bandgap, or having no substantial change in .sup.133Cs magic-angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum, powder x-ray diffraction pattern and/or absorption spectrum, after being subjected to a relative humidity of about 55% at a temperature of about 295K for a period of about 365 days.

8. The inorganic copper-doped double perovskite of claim 5, having no substantial change in the optical indirect bandgap, or having no substantial change in .sup.133Cs magic-angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum, powder x-ray diffraction pattern and/or absorption spectrum, after being subjected to a temperature of about 110° C. for a period of about 6 days.

9. A device comprising a semiconducting material, wherein the semiconducting material comprises, consists essentially of or consists of an inorganic copper-doped double perovskite as defined in claim 1.

10. The device of claim 9, wherein the device is a photovoltaic device, a thermoelectric device, a magneto-electric device or a magneto-optic device.

11. The device of claim 10, wherein the photovoltaic device is a solar cell or a semiconductor and the thermoelectric device is a sensor or a heat transfer device.

12. The device of claim 9, wherein the device is a photovoltaic device.

13. The device of claim 9, wherein the device comprises: a layer comprising an n-type material; a layer comprising a p-type material; and wherein the semiconducting material is between the layer comprising the n-type material and the layer comprising the p-type material.

14. The device of claim 13, wherein the device is a solar cell, and the device further comprises a cathode that is coupled to the layer comprising the p-type material and an anode that is coupled to the layer comprising the n-type material.

15. A method of tuning the bandgap of a Cs.sub.2SbAgZ.sub.6 double perovskite, wherein Z is CI or Br, the method comprising doping the double perovskite with copper to obtain an inorganic copper-doped double perovskite of the formula (I):
Cs.sub.2Sb.sub.1-aAg.sub.1-bCu.sub.2xZ.sub.6  (I) wherein Z is Cl or Br; a+b=2x; and x is in the range of from about 0.005 to about 0.25.

16. The method of claim 15, wherein Z is Cl.

17. The method of claim 16, wherein the inorganic copper-doped double perovskite is prepared by a method comprising: (i) dissolving Sb.sub.2O.sub.3 and AgCl in an aqueous solution comprising HCl; and (ii) adding CsCl and CuCl.sub.2.2H.sub.2O to the solution obtained in step (i).

18. The method of claim 17, wherein prior to addition of the solution obtained in step (i), the CuCl.sub.2.2H.sub.2O is dissolved in an aqueous solution comprising HCl.

19. The method of claim 17, wherein the Sb.sub.2O.sub.3 and AgCl are dissolved in the aqueous solution comprising HCl, while heating.

20. The method of any one of claim 17, wherein the mixture obtained in step (ii) is heated for a time of about 0.5 to about 1.5 hours then allowed to stand at ambient temperature for a time of about 1 hour to about 4 hours.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) The present application will now be described in greater detail with reference to the drawings in which:

(2) FIG. 1 shows cesium-133 magic-angle spinning (MAS) nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra for, from top to bottom in upper image: Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 double perovskite, impure Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 double perovskite and Cs.sub.3Sb.sub.2Cl.sub.9 as well as two-dimensional .sup.133Cs exchange spectroscopy (EXSY) NMR (B.sub.0=21.1 T; ωr/2π=30 kHz) contour plots of Cu.sup.2+-doped Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 (x=0.10) according to an embodiment of the present application with 1 ms (medium grey lines) and 500 ms (darker grey lines) mixing times, showing no Cs exchange (lower image).

(3) FIG. 2 is a schematic illustration of a custom-built humidifying chamber used in the examples of the present application, in which the circle in the chamber is a sample and the square is a humidity monitor.

(4) FIG. 3 shows plots showing the linear relation of Cu/Sb atomic ratio % before (nominal) and after (final product) the synthesis according to embodiments of the present application based on inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometric (ICP-OES) data (upper plot) and Cu-composition based on .sup.133Cs magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance spectra acquired at 11.75 T against nominal Cu/Sb atomic ratio % (lower plot).

(5) FIG. 4 shows exemplary photographs (upper images) and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM; lower images) of Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 (i.e., x=0.00; far left images) and Cu.sup.2+-doped polycrystalline materials according to embodiments of the present application wherein x is 0.01 (second from left images), 0.05 (second from right images) and 0.10 (far right images). The x values indicate nominal Cu.sup.2+ loading. The scale bar at the lower left of the FESEM images is 2 μm.

(6) FIG. 5 shows powder XRD patterns for Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 (x=0.00) and for Cu.sup.2+-doped Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 materials according to embodiments of the present application (upper image) as well as an enlargement of powder XRD patterns for Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 (x=0.00) and for Cu.sup.2+-doped Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 materials according to embodiments of the present application (lower image).

(7) FIG. 6 shows powder XRD patterns for AgCl, Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 and for Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 with the indicated level (x=0.01, 0.05 and 0.10) of nominal Cu.sup.2+ doping according to embodiments of the present application. The presence of AgCl in the double perovskite materials is indicated, with the relative intensity of the AgCl (200) peak increasing as the Cu.sup.2+ doping increases (dotted box).

(8) FIG. 7 shows a schematic representation of the Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 double perovskite structure (upper left) and of possible Cu.sup.2+-doped analogues where [CuCl.sub.6].sup.4− replaces [AgCl.sub.6].sup.5− (upper right) or [SbCl.sub.6].sup.3− (lower left) or where Cu.sup.2+ replaces Cs.sup.+ (lower right), leading to a formation of a neighboring vacancy.

(9) FIG. 8 shows an expansion of the highly intense (220) peak in the powder XRD patterns (upper plot), illustrating its shift toward higher 26 values and its broadening as the Cu.sup.2+ content increases from x=0.00 to 0.10 according to embodiments of the present application. The dotted line is a guide for the eye. FIG. 8 also shows full width at half maximum (FWHM) values of powder XRD patterns as a function of Cu.sup.2+ content (x=0.00-0.10) (lower plot) according to embodiments of the present application.

(10) FIG. 9 shows an ultraviolet-visible-near infrared (UV—VIS-NIR) diffuse reflectance (DR) (solid lines) and normalized absorption (dotted lines) spectrum for Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 parent (i.e., x=0.00) and the maximum Cu.sup.2+-doped (x=0.10) according to an embodiment of the present application materials.

(11) FIG. 10 shows UV—VIS-NIR DR (upper left image), and normalized absorption (upper right image) spectrum for Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 parent (i.e. x=0.00) and all Cu.sup.2+-doped (x=0.01, 0.05, and 0.10) materials according to embodiments of the present application. The DR spectra is converted to absorbance by using the Kubelka-Munk equation. FIG. 10 also shows the Tauc plots, which yield, assuming a direct allowed transition, bandgaps of 2.84 eV for Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 (x=0.00) (lower left image), and 1.34 eV for the maximum Cu.sup.2+ doped material (x=0.10) according to an embodiment of the present application (lower right image).

(12) FIG. 11 shows Tauc plots showing indirect bandgaps of 2.65 eV for Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 (x=0.00; upper image) and 1.02 eV for the maximum Cu.sup.2+-doped material according to embodiments of the present application (x=0.10; lower image). DR spectra were converted to absorbance by using the Kubelka-Munk equation.

(13) FIG. 12 shows solid-state .sup.121Sb NMR spectra for Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 materials with Cu.sup.2+ doping of, from top to bottom, x=0.10, 0.05 and 0.01 according to embodiments of the present application in comparison to the parent Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 (x=0). The spectra were acquired for nonspinning samples at 21.1 T and were acquired using a selective 90° pulse to emphasize the higher frequency resonance that is subject to a sizable quadrupole coupling constant.

(14) FIG. 13 shows a comparison of .sup.121Sb NMR spectra of Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 parent under non-spinning and magic-angle spinning (18 kHz) conditions at 21.1 T (upper image) as well as a comparison of .sup.121Sb NMR spectra acquired at 7.05, 11.75, and 21.1 T for non-spinning Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 with Cu.sup.2+ doping of x=0.10 according to an embodiment of the present application (lower image), showing the improved Sb site resolution with increasing magnetic field strength. Data were acquired with a selective central transition pulse, optimized for the larger CQ resonance to higher frequency (i.e. for the peak centred at about 900 ppm).

(15) FIG. 14 shows a comparison of .sup.121Sb NMR spectra acquired at 7.05 T (upper image) and 21.1 T (lower image) for non-spinning Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 (x=0.00) and for this material with Cu.sup.2+ doping (x=0.01, 0.05, and 0.10) according to embodiments of the present application, showing both the intensity of the high-frequency peak (6 about 900 ppm) and illustrating that the linewidth of the parent peak (i.e. the low frequency peak) increases with Cu.sup.2+ doping (insert).

(16) FIG. 15 shows solid-state .sup.133Cs NMR spectra for Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 materials with Cu.sup.2+ doping of, from top to bottom, x=0.10, 0.05 and 0.01 according to embodiments of the present application in comparison to the parent Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 (x=0). The spectra were acquired at 11.75 T at a spinning frequency of 13.0 kHz.

(17) FIG. 16 shows a schematic representation of Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 double perovskites without (left image), and with Cu.sup.2+ doping at one (center image) or two (right image) sites according to embodiments of the present application. This representation assumes that [CuCl.sub.6].sup.4− will generally only substitute [AgCl.sub.6].sup.5− sites.

(18) FIG. 17 shows a comparison of .sup.133Cs MAS NMR spectra for Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 without (x=0.00) and with (x=0.01, 0.05, and 0.10) Cu.sup.2+ doping according to embodiments of the present application, acquired at 11.75 T with a spinning frequency of 13 kHz, showing that the linewidth of Peak-1 increases with Cu.sup.2+ content (left), and that the relative intensities (with respect to the normalized Peak-1) of Peak-2 and Peak-3 increase with Cu.sup.2+ doping concentration (right). Spinning sidebands are indicated with an asterisk (*).

(19) FIG. 18 shows a comparison of .sup.133Cs MAS NMR spectra for Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 with Cu.sup.2+ doping according to embodiments of the present application or without Cu.sup.2+ doping, acquired at 21.1 T with a spinning frequency of 30 kHz, showing that the linewidth of Peak-1 increases with Cu.sup.2+ content (left), and that the relative intensities (with respect to the normalized Peak-1) of Peak-2 and Peak-3 increase with Cu.sup.2+ doping content (right).

(20) FIG. 19 is a plot showing the contributions of three .sup.133Cs MAS NMR peaks to the total area of the .sup.133Cs NMR spectra.

(21) FIG. 20 shows X-band EPR spectra of Cu.sup.2+-doped Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 materials according to embodiments of the present application wherein x=0.01, 0.05 and 0.10 in comparison to that for the parent Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 (x=0).

(22) FIG. 21 shows variable temperature .sup.133Cs MAS NMR spectra of Cu.sup.2+-doped material (x=0.10) according to an embodiment of the present application acquired at 11.75 T with a spinning frequency of 13 kHz (left image). Arrows are guides to the eye. FIG. 21 also shows the temperature dependence of the .sup.133Cs chemical shift of Peak-3 (right image); the asterisks (*) and crosses (†) indicate spinning sidebands and Peak-3, respectively.

(23) FIG. 22 shows temperature dependent .sup.133Cs MAS NMR spectra of the Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 parent (x=0).

(24) FIG. 23 shows the temperature dependence of the chemical shifts for the three distinct peaks in the .sup.133Cs NMR spectra.

(25) FIG. 24 shows .sup.133Cs MAS NMR spectra (B.sub.o=11.75 T, upper image) and PXRD patterns (lower image) for Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 (x=0.00 and 0.10 Cu.sup.2+ doping according to an embodiment of the present application), Cs.sub.4Sb.sub.2CuCl.sub.2, CsCl, Cs.sub.2CuCl.sub.4 and Cs.sub.3Sb.sub.2Cl.sub.9. The asterisks (*) indicate spinning sidebands.

(26) FIG. 25 shows (upper image) .sup.133Cs MAS NMR spectra acquired at 11.75 T with a frequency of 13 kHz for stability experiments of Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 parent (i.e., x=0.00; bottom three traces) and the maximum Cu.sup.2+-doped (x=0.10; top three traces) materials according to an embodiment of the present application under the conditions of, from top to bottom in each set: 55% relative humidity (RH) for 30 days, 110° C. for 6 days and freshly prepared. FIG. 25 also shows (lower image) powder x-ray diffraction patterns for stability experiments of Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 parent (x=0.00; lower three patterns) and the maximum Cu.sup.2+-doped (x=0.10; upper three patterns) materials according to an embodiment of the present application under the conditions of, from top to bottom in each set: 55% relative humidity (RH) for 30 days, 110° C. for 6 days and freshly prepared.

(27) FIG. 26 shows absorption spectra of Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 parent (x=0.00, red) and the maximum Cu.sup.2+-doped (x=0.10, black) materials according to an embodiment of the present application under conditions of, from top to bottom: 55% relative humidity (RH) for 30 days, 110° C. for 6 days and freshly prepared (upper image). The absorption spectra were extracted from DR data by using the Kubelka-Munk equation. FIG. 26 also shows thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) data for materials without (x=0.00) and with trace Cu.sup.2+ doping (x=0.01 materials) according to an embodiment of the present application, showing similar thermal stability (lower image).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

I. Definitions

(28) Unless otherwise indicated, the definitions and embodiments described in this and other sections are intended to be applicable to all embodiments and aspects of the present application herein described for which they are suitable as would be understood by a person skilled in the art.

(29) In understanding the scope of the present application, the term “comprising” and its derivatives, as used herein, are intended to be open ended terms that specify the presence of the stated features, elements, components, groups, integers, and/or steps, but do not exclude the presence of other unstated features, elements, components, groups, integers and/or steps. The foregoing also applies to words having similar meanings such as the terms, “including”, “having” and their derivatives. The term “consisting” and its derivatives, as used herein, are intended to be closed terms that specify the presence of the stated features, elements, components, groups, integers, and/or steps, but exclude the presence of other unstated features, elements, components, groups, integers and/or steps. The term “consisting essentially of”, as used herein, is intended to specify the presence of the stated features, elements, components, groups, integers, and/or steps as well as those that do not materially affect the basic and novel characteristic(s) of features, elements, components, groups, integers, and/or steps.

(30) Terms of degree such as “substantially”, “about” and “approximately” as used herein mean a reasonable amount of deviation of the modified term such that the end result is not significantly changed. These terms of degree should be construed as including a deviation of at least ±5% of the modified term if this deviation would not negate the meaning of the word it modifies.

(31) The term “and/or” as used herein means that the listed items are present, or used, individually or in combination. In effect, this term means that “at least one of” or “one or more” of the listed items is used or present.

(32) As used in this application, the singular forms “a”, “an” and “the” include plural references unless the content clearly dictates otherwise.

(33) The term “suitable” as used herein means that the selection of specific reagents or conditions will depend on the reaction being performed and the desired results, but none-the-less, can generally be made by a person skilled in the art once all relevant information is known.

II. Copper-Doped Double Perovskites and Methods of Preparation

(34) Lead-free halide double perovskites with a generic formula of A.sub.2B′(III)B″(I)X.sub.6 (wherein A and B are cations and X is a halide anion) are being explored as a less toxic, higher thermal- and moisture-stable alternative to well-studied lead halide perovskite (APbX.sub.3) solar energy absorbers. However, the absorption profiles of most double perovskites reported to date have larger bandgaps (>2 eV) that are poorly aligned with the solar spectrum, reducing their photoconversion efficiency. Herein, new heterovalent paramagnetic Cu.sup.2+-doped Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 double perovskites are presented that exhibited dramatic shifts in their bandgaps from about 2.6 eV (Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6, parent) to about 1 eV (Cu.sup.2+-doped Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6). Powder X-ray diffraction patterns of the Cu.sup.2+-doped polycrystalline materials indicated long-range crystallinity with nonuniform microstrain in the crystal lattice. To decode the dopant, complementary magnetic resonance spectroscopy techniques, solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), were used to unravel the short- and medium-range structure of these new double perovskite materials. Variable temperature .sup.133Cs NMR spectroscopy revealed that paramagnetic Cu.sup.2+ ions are incorporated within the double perovskite material impacting the .sup.133Cs NMR through a Fermi contact interaction. A stress test of the material's long-term (up to 365 days) thermal and moisture stability indicated useful resistance to environmental exposure.

(35) Accordingly, the present application includes a copper-doped double perovskite of the formula (I):
Cs.sub.2Sb.sub.1-aAg.sub.1-bCu.sub.2xZ.sub.6  (I)
wherein Z is Cl or Br; a+b=2x; and x is in the range of from about 0.005 to about 0.25.

(36) In an embodiment, Z is Cl.

(37) In an embodiment, x is in the range of from about 0.005 to about 0.015. In another embodiment, x is in the range of from about 0.01 to about 0.10. In a further embodiment, x is about 0.01, about 0.05 or about 0.10. In another embodiment of the present application, x is about 0.01. In another embodiment, x is about 0.05. In another embodiment, x is about 0.10.

(38) In an embodiment, the copper-doped double perovskite has an optical indirect bandgap of less than 2.65 eV or less than 2 eV. In another embodiment, the copper-doped double perovskite has an optical indirect bandgap in the range of from about 1 eV to less than 2.65 eV. In another embodiment of the present application, the copper-doped double perovskite has an optical indirect bandgap of from about 1 eV to about 1.4 eV. In a further embodiment, the copper-doped double perovskite has an optical indirect bandgap of about 1 eV. In an embodiment, the optical indirect bandgap is as determined using a UV-Vis NIR spectrophotometer with each measurement being acquired between the wavelengths of 2500 nm and 200 nm.

(39) In an embodiment, the copper-doped double perovskite has no substantial change in the optical indirect bandgap after being subjected to a relative humidity of about 55% at a temperature of about 295K, for a period of about 365 days. In another embodiment, the copper-doped double perovskite has no substantial change in .sup.133Cs magic-angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum, powder x-ray diffraction pattern and/or absorption spectrum after being subjected to a relative humidity of about 55% for a period of about 365 days.

(40) In an embodiment, the copper-doped double perovskite has no substantial change in the optical indirect bandgap after being subjected to a temperature of about 110° C. for a period of about 6 days. In another embodiment of the present application, the copper-doped double perovskite has no substantial change in .sup.133Cs magic-angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum, powder x-ray diffraction pattern and/or absorption spectrum after being subjected to a temperature of about 110° C. for a period of about 6 days.

(41) The present application also includes a method of tuning the bandgap of a Cs.sub.2SbAgZ.sub.6 double perovskite, wherein Z is Cl or Br, the method comprising doping the double perovskite with copper. In some embodiments, the method is to obtain a copper-doped double perovskite of the formula (I):
Cs.sub.2Sb.sub.1-aAg.sub.1-bCu.sub.2xZ.sub.6  (I)
wherein Z is Cl or Br; a+b=2x; and x is in the range of from about 0.005 to about 0.25.

(42) In an embodiment, Z is Cl.

(43) In some embodiments, the copper-doped double perovskite is prepared by a method comprising: (i) dissolving Sb.sub.2O.sub.3 and AgCl in an aqueous solution comprising HCl; and (ii) adding CsCl and CuCl.sub.2.2H.sub.2O to the solution obtained in step (i).

(44) The person skilled in the art having regard to the present specification could readily select amounts of the various reagents to prepare a copper-doped perovskite having desired values of a, b and x.

(45) In some embodiments, prior to addition of the solution obtained in step (i), the CuCl.sub.2.2H.sub.2O is dissolved in an aqueous solution comprising HCl.

(46) In an embodiment, the Sb.sub.2O.sub.3 and AgCl are dissolved in the aqueous solution comprising HCl, while heating, for example, while heating at a temperature of from about 100° C. to about to 130° C. or about 120° C. In another embodiment, the aqueous solution comprising HCl is an about 10 M solution of HCl.

(47) In an embodiment, the mixture obtained in step (ii) is heated for a time of about 0.5 to about 1.5 hours or about 2 hours then allowed to stand at ambient temperature for a time of about 1 hour to about 4 hours or about 2 hours. In an embodiment, the heating is at a temperature of from about 100° C. to about to 130° C. or about 120° C. In another embodiment, ambient temperature is in the range of from about 15° C. to about 40° C. or about 20° C. to about 25° C.

III. Devices and Uses

(48) New heterovalent paramagnetic Cu.sup.2+-doped Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 double perovskites were prepared that exhibited dramatic shifts in their bandgaps from about 2.6 eV (Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6, parent) to about 1 eV (Cu.sup.2+-doped Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6). This reduction in bandgap to about 1 eV is more suitable for the solar spectrum and therefore such materials may, for example, be a less toxic, inexpensive, and/or higher thermal and/or moisture stable photovoltaic material, in contrast to conventional hybrid inorganic-organic metal halide perovskites such as the commercialized methylammonium lead iodide (MAPbI.sub.3) variant. Such materials may also be useful, for example, in other devices such as other photovoltaic devices, a thermoelectric device, a magneto-electric device and/or a magneto-optic device. A stress test of the material's long-term (up to 365 days) thermal and moisture stability indicated useful resistance to environmental exposure.

(49) Accordingly, the present application also includes a device comprising a semiconducting material, wherein the semiconducting material comprises, consists essentially of or consists of a copper-doped double perovskite of the present application.

(50) In an embodiment, the semiconducting material comprises the copper-doped double perovskite of the present application. In another embodiment, the semiconducting material consists essentially of the copper-doped double perovskite of the present application. In a further embodiment, the semiconducting material consists of the copper-doped double perovskite of the present application.

(51) The present application also includes a use of a copper-doped double perovskite of the present application as a low-bandgap material. In an embodiment, the low-bandgap material is a semiconducting material in a device.

(52) In an embodiment of the present application, the copper-doped double perovskite is of the formula (I):
Cs.sub.2Sb.sub.1-aAg.sub.1-bCu.sub.2xZ.sub.6  (I)
wherein Z is Cl or Br; a+b=2x; and x is in the range of from about 0.005 to about 0.25.

(53) In an embodiment, Z is Cl.

(54) In an embodiment, x is in the range of from about 0.005 to about 0.015. In another embodiment, x is in the range of from about 0.01 to about 0.10. In a further embodiment, x is about 0.01, about 0.05 or about 0.10. In another embodiment of the present application, x is about 0.01. In another embodiment, x is about 0.05. In another embodiment, x is about 0.10.

(55) In an embodiment, the copper-doped double perovskite has an optical indirect bandgap of less than 2.65 eV or less than 2 eV. In another embodiment, the copper-doped double perovskite has an optical indirect bandgap in the range of from about 1 eV to less than 2.65 eV. In another embodiment of the present application, the copper-doped double perovskite has an optical indirect bandgap of from about 1 eV to about 1.4 eV. In a further embodiment, the copper-doped double perovskite has an optical indirect bandgap of about 1 eV. In an embodiment, the optical indirect bandgap is as determined using a UV-Vis NIR spectrophotometer with each measurement being acquired between the wavelengths of 2500 nm and 200 nm

(56) In an embodiment, the copper-doped double perovskite has no substantial change in the optical indirect bandgap after being subjected to a relative humidity of about 55% at a temperature of about 295K, for a period of about 365 days. In another embodiment, the copper-doped double perovskite has no substantial change in .sup.133Cs magic-angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum, powder x-ray diffraction pattern and/or absorption spectrum after being subjected to a relative humidity of about 55% for a period of about 365 days.

(57) In an embodiment, the copper-doped double perovskite has no substantial change in the optical indirect bandgap after being subjected to a temperature of about 110° C. for a period of about 6 days. In another embodiment of the present application, the copper-doped double perovskite has no substantial change in .sup.133Cs magic-angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum, powder x-ray diffraction pattern and/or absorption spectrum after being subjected to a temperature of about 110° C. for a period of about 6 days.

(58) In an embodiment, the device is a photovoltaic device a thermoelectric device, a magneto-electric device or a magneto-optic device. In an embodiment, the device is a photovoltaic device. In another embodiment, the device is a thermoelectric device. In a further embodiment, the device is a magneto-electric device. In another embodiment, the device is a magneto-optic device.

(59) In an embodiment, the photovoltaic device is a solar cell or a semiconductor. In another embodiment, the device is a solar cell. In another embodiment, the thermoelectric device is a sensor or a heat transfer device.

(60) In an embodiment, the device comprises:

(61) a layer comprising an n-type material;

(62) a layer comprising a p-type material; and

(63) the semiconducting material is between the layer comprising the n-type material and the layer comprising the p-type material.

(64) The term “n-type material” as used herein refers to a semiconducting material that has electrons as the majority current carriers. The n-type material can be any suitable n-type material. The term “p-type material” as used herein refers to a semiconducting material having holes as the majority current carriers. The p-type material can be any suitable p-type material.

(65) In some embodiments, for example, wherein the device is a solar cell, the device further comprises a cathode that is coupled to the layer comprising the p-type material and an anode that is coupled to the layer comprising the n-type material. The cathode and anode can comprise any suitable charge conducting materials, the selection of which can be made by a person skilled in the art.

(66) In an embodiment, the solar cell is a thin film solar cell. In another embodiment, the solar cell is a sensitized solar cell and the semiconducting material is coupled to a conducting mesoporous scaffold. The conducting mesoporous scaffold can comprise any suitable material. In some embodiments, the mesoporous scaffold comprises, consists essentially of or consists of TiO.sub.2.

(67) The following non-limiting examples are illustrative of the present application:

EXAMPLES

Example 1: Synthesis and Characterization of Cu(II)-Doped Cs.SUB.2.SbAgCl.SUB.6 .Double Perovskite: A Lead-Free, Low-Bandgap Material

I. Experimental

(a) Materials and Methods

(68) All starting precursor materials and solvents were obtained from commercial sources and used without further purification: CsCl (>99%, Acros Organics, NJ, USA), Sb.sub.2O.sub.3 (99%, Sigma Aldrich Co., St. Louis, Mo., USA), AgNO.sub.3 (EM Science, NJ, USA), CuCl.sub.2.2H.sub.2O (Aldrich Chemical Company, Inc, USA), HCl (EMD Chemical Inc., Darmstadt, Germany), H.sub.3PO.sub.2 (50 wt. % in H.sub.2O, Sigma-Aldrich Co., St. Louis, Mo., USA). All reactions were performed under ambient conditions.

(b) Synthesis of Polycrystalline Cs.SUB.2.SbAgCl.SUB.6

(69) Freshly prepared AgCl was used in this synthesis. AgCl was formed by adding 10 M HCl (in excess) to an aqueous solution of AgNO.sub.3, resulting in the precipitation of a white solid, which was filtered using a Buchner funnel, washed with 95% ethanol and dried under suction filtration. First, 4 mL of 10 M HCl and 1 mL of H.sub.3PO.sub.2 solvent were placed into a vial and heated to 120° C. using a hot plate with gentle stirring using a magnetic stir bar. Then 0.5 mmol of solid Sb.sub.2O.sub.3 (0.146 g) and 1 mmol of freshly prepared AgCl (0.143 g) were added to the hot solvent mixture, followed by the addition of 2 mmol of CsC (0.337 g); immediately, a pale-yellow precipitate was observed (later confirmed via PXRD and EDX to be Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6). The mixture was heated for one hour and then left at room temperature for two hours. The polycrystalline solid was filtered using a Buchner funnel and washed with 95% ethanol, followed by overnight drying. A small amount of Cs.sub.3Sb.sub.2Cl.sub.9 can form as an impurity during the synthesis as shown in FIG. 1 (upper spectra).

(c) Synthesis of Polycrystalline Cs.SUB.2.Sb.SUB.1-a.Ag.SUB.1-b.Cu.SUB.2x.Cl.SUB.6 .(a+b=2x, x=0.01, 0.05, and 0.10)

(70) AgCl was prepared as described above in section I(b). For x=0.01: 0.034 g of CuCl.sub.2.2H.sub.2O (0.20 mmol) was dissolved in 5 mL of 10 M HCl and a homogeneous solution was obtained. In a separate reaction, 10 mL of 10 M HCl was placed into a vial and heated to 120° C. with gentle stirring using a hot plate equipped with a magnetic stirrer. 1 mmol of white solid Sb.sub.2O.sub.3 powder (0.292 g) and 2 mmol of freshly prepared AgCl (0.287 g) were dissolved in the hot solvent mixture. Following dissolution, 4 mmol of CsCl (0.673 g) and 0.04 mmol (corresponding to 0.0068 g or 1 mL solution) of CuCl.sub.2.2H.sub.2O, prepared as described above, were added to the solution. A black precipitate was immediately observed. The mixture was heated for one hour and then left at room temperature for two hours. The polycrystalline solid was filtered using a Buchnerfunnel, washed with 95% ethanol, and followed by overnight drying. For x=0.05, 0.10: 10 mL of 10 M HCl was placed into a vial with gentle stirring and heated to 120° C. using a hot plate equipped with a magnetic stir bar. 0.95 mmol (0.277 g) or 0.90 mmol (0.262 g) of white solid Sb.sub.2O.sub.3 powder and 1.9 mmol (0.272 g) or 1.8 mmol (0.258 g) of freshly prepared AgCl, for x=0.05 and 0.10, respectively, were dissolved in the hot solvent mixture. Following dissolution, 4 mmol of CsCl (0.673 g) and 0.2 mmol (0.034 g) or 0.4 mmol (0.068 g) of CuCl.sub.2.2H.sub.2O, for x=0.05 and 0.10, respectively, were added to the solution. Immediately following this step, a black precipitate was observed. The mixture was heated for one hour and then allowed to stand at room temperature for two hours. The polycrystalline solid was filtered using a Buchner funnel, washed with 95% ethanol, and allowed to dry overnight.

(d) Diffuse Reflectance (DR) Spectroscopy

(71) A Cary 5000 UV-Vis-NIR spectrophotometer, equipped for the analysis of small-quantity fine powdered samples, was used to obtain DR data (Analytical and Instrumental Laboratory, University of Alberta). Each sample was packed into a black boat (about 100 mg/sample) and each measurement was acquired between the wavelengths of 2500 and 200 nm.

(72) The diffuse reflectance spectra were converted to pseudo-absorbance spectra using the following Kubelka-Munk transformation:

(73) ${\hspace{0.17em}}^{27}\alpha \sim \frac{{\left(1-R\right)}^2}{2R},$
where, R=absolute reflectance and α=pseudo-absorbance. The direct and indirect bandgaps were measured by taking the intercept upon extrapolation of the linear regions of (αhv).sup.2 vs E(eV) and (αhv).sup.1/2 vs E(eV) plots, respectively.
(e) Powder X-Ray Diffraction (PXRD)

(74) Powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) measurements were collected on an Inel MPD multi-purpose diffractometer (40 kV, 50 mA) system (Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta) equipped with a CPS 120 curved position sensitive X-ray detector and Cu K.sub.α radiation source (1.540596 Å). Samples were placed on a plastic sample holder and 26 data were collected from 0.290° to 113.767° with a step increment of 0.029.sup.0.

(75) (f) Energy Dispersion X-Ray (EDX) Measurements

(76) The energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis was performed using a low vacuum JEOL JSM-6010LA InTouchScope (Scanning Electron Microscope Laboratory, University of Alberta), equipped with a Bruker Silicon Drift Detector.

(77) (g) Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrometric (ICP-OES) Measurements

(78) The inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometric (ICP-OES) analysis was performed using a Argon plasma ICP spectrophotometer Perkin Elmer Optima 2000 OES DV (Laboratorio di Microanalisi, University of Florence) instrument. The samples were dissolved in aqua regia.

(79) (h) Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)

(80) Thermogravimetric analysis was performed using a Perkin Elmer Pyris 1 instrument (Analytical and Instrumental Laboratory, University of Alberta) with a nitrogen gas flow of 20 mL/min and a heating rate of 5° C./min. The temperature range was 25-800° C.

(81) (i) Humidity and Thermal Stress Tests

(82) A small amount of freshly prepared Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 (x=0.00) and highest Cu.sup.2+-doped (x=0.10) materials were placed in a custom-built humidifying chamber at 55±5% relative humidity at 295 K (FIG. 2). The samples were placed in a fume hood within this chamber in the presence of normal laboratory light (natural and artificial). After one year (x=0.00) or one month (x=0.10), the samples were removed from the humidifying chamber, and further analyses including, PXRD, .sup.133Cs MAS NMR, and DR were collected.

(83) A small amount of freshly prepared Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 (x=0.00) and highest Cu.sup.2+-doped (x=0.10) materials were placed in an oven at approximately 110° C. for six days, then removed and placed on the bench to cool to ambient temperature. Samples were then analyzed by PXRD, .sup.133Cs MAS NMR spectroscopy and DR experiments to confirm purity and stability of the samples.

(84) (j) Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) Spectroscopy

(85) EPR spectra were acquired at X-band (9.77 GHz) on a Bruker ELEXSYS spectrometer (CERM, University of Florence), equipped with a standard ST4102 cavity. Field modulation was 20 G at 100 kHz and four scans were taken for each sample under ambient conditions. MW power was set to 50 mW; no evidence of saturation was observed.

(86) (k) Solid-State Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy

(87) .sup.121Sb NMR: Antimony-121 NMR spectra were acquired at 7.05 T (300 MHz, .sup.1H) and 11.75 T (500 MHz, .sup.1H) on Bruker Avance 300 and 500 NMR spectrometers, respectively, using a non-selective Bloch pulse (short tip angle) or a selective (1.3 μs π/2, γB.sub.1/2π=65 kHz) Hahn-echo pulse sequence ((π/2).sub.x−τ.sub.1−(π).sub.y−τ.sub.2−ACQ, where τ.sub.1 and τ.sub.2 represent the inter-pulse and refocusing delays, respectively), 1,000 to 29,000 co-added transients and a recycle delay of 2 s. Samples were packed in 4 mm OD ZrO.sub.2 rotors (80 μL fill volume) and spectra were acquired under non-spinning and magic-angle spinning (MAS) conditions with a spinning frequency between 10 and 12 kHz. Additional .sup.121Sb NMR spectra were acquired at 21.1 T (900 MHz, .sup.1H) on a Bruker Avance II 900 NMR spectrometer using a 4 mm H/X MAS Bruker probe and a modified solid-echo pulse sequence ((π/2).sub.x−τ.sub.1−(π).sub.y−τ.sub.2−ACQ).sup.28, γB.sub.1/2π=83 kHz (1.0 μs π/2), 1,024 co-added transients and a recycle delay of 2 s. All .sup.121Sb NMR spectra were referenced by setting the peak for 0.5 M KSbF6 to δ=0.00 ppm..sup.29

(88) .sup.133Cs NMR: Cesium-133 NMR spectra of the Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 parent (x=0.00) and of the Cu.sup.2+-doped (0.01, 0.05, and 0.10) materials were acquired at 11.75 T (500 MHz .sup.1H) on a Bruker Avance 500 NMR spectrometer, with a Bloch pulse using a short pulse (1.25 μs, γB.sub.1/2π=50 kHz), 64 to 512 co-added transients and a recycle delay between 60 and 500 s. Samples were packed in 4 mm OD ZrO.sub.2 rotors and spectra were collected under MAS conditions (ωr/2π=13 kHz). Variable temperature NMR spectra were acquired at 238, 291, 323, and 343 K using appropriate relaxation delays (determined using a saturation recovery pulse sequence) to obtain pseudo-quantitative spectra (while not wishing to be limited by theory, some paramagnetic quenching is likely due to the presence of Cu.sup.2+). The sample and probe temperature were permitted to stabilize for 10-15 minutes prior to each VT data point acquisition. The temperatures were calibrated with .sup.207Pb NMR using MAPbCl.sub.3..sup.30 Cesium-133 NMR spectra of Cu.sup.2+ doped Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 materials (x=0.01, 0.05, and 0.10) were acquired at 21.1 T (900 MHz .sup.1H) on a Bruker Avance II 900 spectrometer using a 2.5 mm H/X MAS Bruker probe and a solid pulse (1.0 μs π/4 pulse) with 10 s recycle delays. Samples were packed in 2.5 mm OD ZrO.sub.2 rotors and spectra were collected using a spinning frequency of 30 kHz. .sup.133Cs 2D exchange spectroscopy (EXSY).sup.31 spectra were acquired at a spinning frequency of 30 kHz with π/2 pulses of 2.0 μs, recycle delays of 5 s, 96 to 128 co-added transients and 128 t.sub.1 increments; mixing times ranged from 0.1 ms to 1 sec (FIG. 1, lower spectra). All .sup.133Cs NMR spectra were referenced by setting the .sup.133Cs peak of a 0.1 M CsCl solution to δ=0.00 ppm.

II. Results and Discussion

(89) The polycrystalline antimony-silver-based double perovskite, Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6, was doped with Cu.sup.2+ by synthetic loading via solvent synthesis to produce Cs.sub.2Sb.sub.1-aAg.sub.1-bCu.sub.2xCl.sub.6 (wherein a+b=2x, x=0.00 (i.e., parent compound), 0.01, 0.05, and 0.10). The nominal composition is reported due to the low Cu concentrations and associated challenges in elemental analysis of these materials (Table 1). Uncertainties in Table 1 are provided in the parentheses, as the dopant concentrations are near the detection limits, hence the larger uncertainties. FIG. 3 shows a nearly linear relationship between quantitatively measured Cu concentrations and the Cu/Sb atomic ratio by synthetic loading (nominal composition). Due to the low Cu concentrations and associated challenges in elemental analysis of these materials, in the present application, all Cu-doped materials are referred to via their nominal composition, x.

(90) TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Nominal and elemental analyzed results (EDX, ICP-OES and .sup.133Cs NMR) for Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 (x = 0.00) and for the Cu.sup.2+-doped (x = 0.01, 0.05, 0.10) materials. Cu Composition Nominal ICP-OES.sup.c .sup.133Cs NMR Atom % by EDX.sup.b (atomic ratio %) (atomic ratio %) % Cu.sub.2x.sup.d x.sup.a Cs Sb Ag Cl Cu Cu/Cs Cu/Sb Cu/Cs Cu/Sb (±0.5) 0.00 21.64 11.24  9.72 57.40 — — — — — — (0.93) (0.63) (0.74) (0.90) 0.010 21.04 11.07 10.31 56.84 0.74  1.00  2.00 0.55 1.07 0.43 (0.42) (0.54) (0.14) (1.05) (0.46) 0.050 21.84 11.12  8.78 57.18 1.08  5.00 10.53 1.52 3.48 2.54 (0.74) (0.47) (0.72) (0.78) (0.69) 0.100 22.12 11.19  6.80 58.33 1.55 10.00 22.22 2.53 6.09 3.94 (0.71) (0.60) (0.51) (1.20) (0.94) .sup.ax is the nominal Cu.sup.2+ composition in Cs.sub.2Sb.sub.1-aAg.sub.1-bCu.sub.2xCl.sub.6. .sup.bEDX is energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopic analysis (in quintuplicate). .sup.cICP-OES is inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometric analysis (in triplicate). .sup.dCu.sub.2x is % Cu.sup.2+ concentration in the final product of Cs.sub.2Sb.sub.1-aAg.sub.1-bCu.sub.2xCl.sub.6from .sup.133Cs NMR.

(91) FIG. 4 shows photographs and the corresponding FESEM images for the Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 parent and the Cu.sup.2+-doped materials. The FESEM images confirm that the materials are composed of multifaced micrometer-sized polycrystals. The PXRD pattern (FIG. 5) of Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6, indicates a face-centered cubic double perovskite structure (Fm3.sup.−m space group) with a=b=c=10.699 Å unit cell dimensions. The nearly identical PXRD patterns for Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 and the doped materials indicate single-phase crystalline solids.

(92) Closer examination of the PXRD patterns (FIG. 6) indicates trace quantities of AgCl in the parent material, with increasing AgCl concentration as Cu is incorporated into the sample. In FIG. 6, the PXRD pattern for AgCl is simulated..sup.32 Qualitatively, while not wishing to be limited by theory, these findings may suggest that [AgCl.sub.6].sup.5− octahedra in the Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 double perovskite lattice are being replaced with [CuCl.sub.6].sup.4− octahedra upon Cu.sup.2+ doping, forming vacancies to maintain charge balance and causing the formation of insoluble AgCl. The elemental analysis of these materials using EDX spectroscopy (Table 1) provides a clearer interpretation, indicating a decrease in Ag.sup.+ concentration with increasing Cu.sup.2+ doping, while the concentrations of Cs.sup.+, Sb.sup.3+, and Cl.sup.− are, within experimental uncertainty, unchanged. Note that the initial Sb.sup.3+:Ag.sup.+ loading ratios are kept constant at the beginning of the synthesis for all samples.

(93) FIG. 7 displays the crystal structure of the Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 double perovskite, showing that [SbCl].sup.3− and [AgCl].sup.5− octahedra are coordinated to each other in alternating corner-sharing configurations with a Cs.sup.+ ion residing at the center of the cuboctahedra, thus maintaining an extended 3D perovskite crystal structure. There are, in principle, three positions in which Cu.sup.2+ can be incorporated into a double perovskite crystal lattice: the [AgCl.sub.6].sup.5− or the [SbCl.sub.6].sup.3− octahedra may be replaced with [CuCl.sub.6].sup.4− (FIG. 7, upper right or lower left, respectively), or Cu.sup.2+ may occupy an A-site of the lattice (FIG. 7, lower right), leading to the formation of a neighboring vacancy. Because of the large difference in the Pauling electronegativity (χ.sub.P) of Cs (0.79) compared to that of Cu (1.90), a structure that includes six covalent Cu—Cl bonds rather than 12 Cu—Cl ionic interactions is favored. Additionally, since χ.sub.P for Ag (1.93) is very close to that for Cu but significantly different from that for Sb (2.05), the [CuCl].sup.4− octahedra in the doped material are expected to primarily replace the [AgCl.sub.6].sup.5− octahedra, as illustrated in FIG. 7, upper right. In summary, while not wishing to be limited by theory, substitution of Ag.sup.+ by Cu.sup.2+ produces a Ag.sup.+ cationic vacancy to maintain charge balance neutrality of the doped materials. The EPR spectra (vide infra) of the sample at the lowest copper loading are consistent with the presence of tetragonally distorted [CuCl.sub.6].sup.4− octahedra:.sup.33 the spectrum is substantially axial, with the downfield g.sub.⊥ feature, about 2.3, sizably broadened by unresolved hyperfine couplings and with the gi component, about 2.0, shifted slightly upfield with respect to literature values. With increased doping, a peak at about 2.15 appears, indicating the presence of exchange-coupled copper pairs..sup.34 While not wishing to be limited by theory, this observation suggests that copper-copper pairs form with a higher than statistical probability. Exchange coupling is expected to emerge because of the interaction of the electrons on one copper center with electrons on another copper center, through the orbitals of intervening nonmagnetic atoms between them..sup.34 This can happen through two bonds, as it would be for a Cu—Cl—Cu arrangement as well as through four bonds, as it would be for a Cu—Cl-M-Cl—Cu arrangement. While not wishing to be limited by theory, an explanation for the observed EPR spectrum is the formation of Cu—Cl—Cu pairs in the form of two elongated octahedra that share a vertex and have orthogonal elongation axes. The emergence of such Cu—Cu pairs if the substitution was random would be expected around 6%, 30%, and 60% for x=0.01, 0.05, and 0.1 Cu.sup.2+-doped materials, respectively, including triplets and quartets.

(94) The ionic radius for Cu.sup.2+ (0.87 Å) is slightly less than that for Sb.sup.3+ (0.90 Å) and significantly less than that for Ag.sup.+ (1.29 Å);.sup.35 thus, a decrease in the lattice parameter due to the incorporation of Cu.sup.2+ into the crystal lattice is expected. For example, FIG. 8 (upper plot) shows that the highly intense (220) peak in the PXRD pattern shifts slightly toward a higher 26 value with copper incorporation, suggesting that the average lattice parameters are decreasing for the doped materials and that the Cu.sup.2+ ion has substituted into the lattice. The full width at half-maximum (FWHM) of the diffraction peaks also increases systematically with increasing dopant concentration. While not wishing to be limited by theory, these results imply local nonuniform microstrain structural defects in our doped materials (see below)..sup.36 Such defects have also been observed in heterovalent Bi.sup.3+ doping of the MAPbBr.sub.3 perovskite..sup.37 The extent of microstrain has been computed by measuring the FWHM values of the PXRD peaks in the present materials with and without Cu.sup.2+ doping. The steadily increasing FWHM values (FIG. 8, lower plot) are consistent with increased Cu.sup.2+ incorporation into the crystal lattice.

(95) Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 shows characteristics of a material with an indirect bandgap..sup.14(b),15 FIG. 9 shows the DR and normalized absorbance spectrum of the Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 parent and of the Cu.sup.2+-doped (x=0.10) double perovskites (see FIG. 10 for the complete set of the series), which indicate a dramatic shift of the optical band edge upon Cu.sup.2+ doping. The Tauc plots (FIG. 11) show that Cu.sup.2+ doping (x=0.10) reduces the indirect bandgap from 2.65 eV for Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 to 1.02 eV. Assuming a direct allowed transition, Tauc plots give bandgaps of 2.84 eV for Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 and 1.34 eV for the Cu.sup.2+-doped material (x=0.10) (FIG. 10). This finding is consistent with the pictures shown in FIG. 4, upper images, where a drastic visual color change from yellow (in color images) to black occurs upon Cu.sup.2+ doping, further supporting the conclusion of a reduced bandgap, absorbing in the near-IR range. The band edge is not sharp for the doped materials compared to that for Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6. While not wishing to be limited by theory, this result suggests lattice disorder/defects in the doped materials and is consistent with the NMR results, discussed below. Band tailing is also observed in layered halide double perovskites,.sup.17 thin film hybrid lead mixed-halide (Br, I) perovskite films,.sup.38 and doped lead halide perovskites..sup.9,37 Volonakis et al..sup.39 showed that the calculated indirect bandgaps are 2.6 and 2.1 eV for Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 and Cs.sub.2SbCuCl.sub.6, respectively. While not wishing to be limited by theory, the difference between the experimental determined bandgap of the present Cu.sup.2+-doped materials (vs calculated Cs.sub.2SbCuCl.sub.6, diamagnetic 3d.sup.10 Cu(I)) is attributed to the oxidation state; paramagnetic 3d.sup.9 Cu(II) enters the double perovskite lattice in the materials presented herein.

(96) Low doping concentrations of Cu.sup.2+ in Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 double perovskite would cause a localized state near the band edges, which would be responsible for a localized transition. As the dopant Cu.sup.2+ concentration increases within the lattice, the average Cu—Cu distances between defect sites will decrease dramatically throughout the lattice. These localized impurity states will then form a delocalized state, resulting in an overall narrowing of the bandgap in higher doped materials. The experimental EPR results (above) show Cu.sup.2+—Cu.sup.2+ coupling at higher Cu.sup.2+ doping concentrations in Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6, while not wishing to be limited by theory, supporting the possibility of forming a delocalized state due to suitable Cu—Cu distances.

(97) The PXRD and DR results indicate local structural disorder within the doped double perovskites. Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is a powerful analytical tool that allows one to characterize atomic-level short- and medium-range structure, as well as dynamics in hybrid perovskites..sup.5(c),40 Accordingly, to further elucidate these finer structural details, NMR spectroscopy, a nondestructive analytical technique, was used to further decode the short- and medium-range structure of the A (.sup.133Cs) and B (.sup.121Sb) sites.

(98) FIG. 12 shows the .sup.121Sb NMR spectrum for nonspinning Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 (x=0.00) acquired at 21.1 T, displaying a sharp central transition resonance, centered at 817 ppm. Because Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 has cubic symmetry and the Sb chemical environment has octahedral coordination to six Cl.sup.− anions and the six next-nearest Ag.sup.+ cations, second-order quadrupolar broadening is not expected. Nevertheless, a broad underlying component spanning from about 1150 to 500 ppm was detected, which breaks into a series of spinning sidebands when spun at the magic angle. While not wishing to be limited by theory, this was attributed to signals from the satellite transitions for crystallites exhibiting slight imperfections/defects. Fitting both nonspinning and magic-angle spinning data obtained at two magnetic field strengths (B.sub.o=11.75 and 21.1 T) enables the determination of a small .sup.121Sb quadrupole coupling constant (C.sub.Q) of 1.1±0.3 MHz for the Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 parent double perovskite (FIG. 13, upper plot). This is consistent with other cubic antimony-containing complexes where even slight distortions about the symmetric Sb.sup.3+ nucleus can give rise to considerable quadrupole coupling constants with visible second-order broadening (e.g., C.sub.Q=2-3 MHz for K.sub.2SbF.sub.6), a consequence of the sizable .sup.121Sb quadrupole moment (−36.0 fm.sup.2)..sup.41

(99) Upon Cu.sup.2+ incorporation, a second broad .sup.121Sb NMR resonance appears to high frequency of the sharp resonance (FIG. 13, upper image). While not wishing to be limited by theory, the breadth of the peak was attributed to the change in the electric field gradient about the [SbCl.sub.6].sup.3− octahedra that occur when neighboring Ag.sup.+ cations are replaced with Cu.sup.2+, that is, [(SbCl.sub.6)Ag.sub.5Cu], resulting in a sizable quadrupole coupling (FIG. 13, lower image). Also, a systematic increase in the area of the peak centered at about 900 ppm was observed (FIG. 14). Because of the differences in quadrupole coupling constants between the two sites, the two resonances were not quantitatively fitted, although qualitatively the broad resonance increased with Cu.sup.2+ doping. Closer examination of the central transition assigned to [(SbCl.sub.6)Ag.sub.6] indicates that this NMR site was also impacted by Cu.sup.2+ incorporation, with the FWHM of the peak at δ.sub.iso=817 ppm increasing from 2.8±0.3 kHz (x=0.00) to 7.5±0.5 kHz (x=0.10) (FIG. 14). While not wishing to be limited by theory, the broadening was attributed to a reduction of the medium-range cubic symmetry about Sb.sup.3+ as Cu.sup.2+ was incorporated into the cubic lattice, impacting the electric field gradient about Sb, and to the presence of a paramagnetic species (Cu.sup.2+, d.sup.9 system), which reduces the spin-lattice relaxation times (T.sub.1) of .sup.133Cs and increases the NMR line widths under magic-angle spinning (T.sub.2*) for .sup.133Cs and .sup.121Sb NMR (Table 2). The .sup.121Sb Gaussian-like line shape of the Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 parent double perovskite is commonly observed in hybrid perovskites and while not wishing to be limited by theory, was attributed to indirect spin-spin coupling (J-coupling) between .sup.121Sb and the six-coordinated .sup.35/37Cl anions..sup.41

(100) TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 .sup.133Cs and .sup.121Sb NMR relaxation parameters (T.sub.1 and T.sub.2*) for Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 (x = 0.00) and for the x = 0.10 Cu.sup.2+-doped materials. x .sup.133Cs (T.sub.1), sec .sup.133Cs (T.sub.2*), ms .sup.121Sb (T.sub.2*), μs 0 51 ± 6  6 ± 1 360 ± 40 0.10 2.7 ± 0.5 1.3 ± 0.1 130 ± 30 All .sup.133Cs NMR relaxation parameters (T.sub.1 and T.sub.2*) were measured at 11.75 T and whereas all .sup.121Sb NMR relaxation parameters (T.sub.2*) were measured at 7.05 T.

(101) FIG. 15 shows the .sup.133Cs MAS NMR spectra of Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 with and without Cu.sup.2+ doping. The small quadrupole moment for .sup.133Cs, Q=−0.34 fm.sup.2 and high nuclear spin, I=7/2, combined with its 100% natural abundance, make it an attractive NMR nucleus that behaves as a pseudo I=½ nuclear spin..sup.42 Because Cs.sup.+ resides in a cubooctahedral void surrounded by alternating [SbCl.sub.6].sup.3− and [AgCl.sub.6].sup.5− octahedra (FIG. 7, upper left), it is a useful method to probe local structural defects within the Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 lattice as there is only one crystallographic position for this nucleus. A peak at δ.sub.iso=82 ppm in the .sup.133Cs MAS NMR spectra (labeled Peak-1 in FIG. 15) was observed for all samples. A new resonance emerged at δ.sub.iso=−10 ppm (Peak-2), as Cu.sup.2+ was incorporated. While not wishing to be limited by theory, because Cu.sup.2+ is expected to substitute Ag+, this peak was tentatively assigned to a Cs.sup.+ surrounded by four Sb.sup.3+, three Ag+, and one Cu.sup.2+ (FIG. 7, upper right and FIG. 16, middle schematic). As the Cu.sup.2+ doping increases further (x≥0.05), a third resonance begins to emerge at δ.sup.iso=−100 ppm (FIG. 15, Peak-3) albeit with very low intensity (<3% at x=0.10, Table 3), which, while not wishing to be limited by theory, was assigned to .sup.133Cs nuclei proximate to two Cu.sup.2+ sites (FIG. 16, right hand schematic). From the crystal structure of Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6, the Cs.sup.+ ion resides in the cubooctahedral void, surrounded by a total of eight (four Ag.sup.+ and four Sb.sup.3+) octahedral sites (FIG. 16, left hand schematic). Similarly, each Ag.sup.+ or Sb.sup.3+ site is also surrounded by eight Cs.sup.+ ions. Since the peaks labeled Peak-2 in the .sup.133Cs NMR spectra arise from Cu.sup.2+ substitution in a Ag.sup.+ site, each Cu.sup.2+ ion is surrounded by eight Cs.sup.+ ions. If one neglects the minor contribution giving rise to Peak-3, then from the .sup.133Cs NMR spectra, the total Cu.sup.2+ concentration in the final product is given by the equation: (2x)=⅛× (Area/%), where Area/% refers to the percent contribution of Peak-2 to the total .sup.133Cs spectrum. For example, when x=0.10, the area for Peak-2 in the .sup.133Cs NMR spectrum is 29.5% and thus: (2x)=(a+b)=(⅛×29.5)%=3.37%=0.037. Hence, x=(½×0.037)=0.0185. The general formula of the Cu.sup.2+ doped material is: Cs.sub.2Sb.sub.1-aAg.sub.1-bCu.sub.2xCl.sub.6 (a+b=2x) and the (2x) value represents the fraction of octahedral sites (Sb.sup.3+ or Ag.sup.+) that are substituted by Cu.sup.2+ ions.

(102) TABLE-US-00003 TABLE 3 Calculated contributions from the three .sup.133Cs MAS NMR peaks (Peak-1, Peak-2, and Peak-3) and the fitted line equations. .sup.133Cs NMR Area % for x (±1%) Peak 0.00 0.01 0.05 0.10 Fitted Linear Equation Peak-1 100 97.4 79.8 67.5 δ.sub.iso(.sup.133Cs)/ppm = −334(32) x + 100(2); R.sup.2 = 0.973 Peak-2 0 2.5 19.1 29.6 δ.sub.iso (.sup.133Cs)/ppm = 305(34) x + 1(2); R.sup.2 = 0.963 Peak-3 0 0.2 1.1 2.9 δ.sub.iso (.sup.133Cs)/ppm = 29(3) x + 0(0); R.sup.2 = 0.971

(103) Peak-1 also broadened as the Cu.sup.2+ doping increases (FIGS. 17 and 18, Tables 4 and 5) due to the incorporation of paramagnetic Cu.sup.2+, as discussed above for the .sup.121Sb NMR spectra. In fitting the δ.sub.iso(.sup.133Cs) peaks, it was found that the area for Peak-1 decreases linearly, whereas those for Peak-2 and Peak-3 increase linearly with Cu.sup.2+ doping (FIG. 19 and Table 3).

(104) TABLE-US-00004 TABLE 4 FWHM values for .sup.133Cs MAS NMR spectra (Peak-1 and Peak-2 of FIG. 17) for Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 without or with Cu.sup.2+ doping, acquired at 11.75 T, T = 291K and a spinning frequency of 13 kHz. FWHM (Hz) Cu.sup.2+ composition (x) Peak-1 Peak-2 0.00 200(5)  — 0.01 205(5)  1350(20) 0.05 615(10) 1360(10) 0.10 770(10) 1350(10)

(105) TABLE-US-00005 TABLE 5 FWHM values of .sup.133Cs MAS NMR spectra (B.sub.o = 21.1 T, ωr/2π = 30 kHz) for Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 (FIG. 18). FWHM (Hz) Cu.sup.2+ composition (x) Peak-1 Peak-2 Peak-3 0.01 305(5) 1625(25) — 0.05 1035(10) 2080(20) 2500(200) 0.10 1410(10) 2310(20) 2700(100)

(106) The incorporation of Cu.sup.2+ resulted in the appearance of new .sup.133Cs resonances, which exhibit a linear relationship with synthetic Cu loading (FIG. 3). Using these tentatively assigned .sup.133Cs chemical shifts, and knowledge that each copper center will impact eight cesium centers, one can also obtain an estimate of Cu.sup.2+ incorporation post-synthesis (Table 1), although this does not account for potential Cu.sup.2+ clusters and hence is expected to be a lower limit.

(107) For the samples considered here, the first observation is that Peak-2 and Peak-3 are shifted to lower frequency. There are two mechanisms for paramagnetic shift: the through-space interaction between the nuclear spin and the average magnetic moment of the paramagnetic center (pseudocontact shift), and the interaction between the nuclear spin and the unpaired spin density at the nucleus itself (Fermi contact)..sup.43 The pseudocontact contribution to the shift arises because of the interaction of the nuclear spin with the average magnetic moment of the paramagnetic center, which does not average to zero in the case when magnetic susceptibility of the metal center is anisotropic. It can be related to the magnetic susceptibility through the Kurland-McGarvey equation.sup.44 and, for the case of S=½ spins, it can be directly related to the electron g-matrix from EPR:

(108) ${\delta }^{\mathrm{pc}}=\frac{1}{12\pi r^3}\frac{{\mu }_0{\mu }_B^{0}S\left(S+1\right)}{3\mathrm{kT}}\left(g_{||}^2-g_{\perp }^2\right)\left(3{\cos }^2\theta -1\right)$
Using g.sub.∥=2.3 and g.sub.⊥=2.0, at about 4.5 Å the expected PCS value is 1.2 ppm, to which a further contribution amounting to about 20% coming from the temperature independent paramagnetism could be added..sup.45 Given that the pseudocontact contribution to the shift, based on the EPR spectrum (FIG. 20) and on geometrical arguments,.sup.43,46 is expected to be positive and smaller than 1 ppm, it was concluded that the main source of the shift is Fermi contact. The fact that the shift is to lower frequency indicates that contact occurs through the spin-polarization mechanism..sup.47 The Fermi contact shift is the interaction of the nucleus with the unpaired spin electron density at the nucleus itself. Therefore, Fermi contact reports on the electronic structure about the nucleus. The observation of Fermi contact indicates that the nature of the interaction of the cesium ions with the lattice is not just ionic but has some degree of covalency (i.e., orbital overlap). Finally, the mechanism of the Fermi contact suggests that the overlap is not with penetrating orbitals such as the 6s, but rather with p- or d-type orbitals.

(109) To further investigate the contributions from the paramagnetic Cu.sup.2+ center to the three distinct .sup.133Cs NMR chemical shifts discussed above, a series of variable-temperature .sup.133Cs NMR measurements from 238 to 343 K on the x=0.10 Cu.sup.2+-doped material were undertaken. The impact of paramagnetic species on the NMR spectra offers a wealth of information, encoded in the changes in chemical shifts and in a reduction of relaxation times as a consequence of the interaction between the nuclei and the unpaired electrons..sup.43,48 The observation of paramagnetic effects on the nuclei may provide substantial information about the electronic structure at the paramagnetic centers. The temperature dependence is a revealing feature of the behavior of paramagnetic systems and thus has proven useful in studies of a variety of solids..sup.47(a),49 All three .sup.133Cs NMR peaks shift to higher frequency as the temperature is increased (FIG. 21 and Table 6), but each has a distinct temperature dependence..sup.33(c),34,35,50,38

(110) TABLE-US-00006 TABLE 6 Temperature dependence of chemical shifts and fitted line equations for Peak-1, Peak-2, and Peak-3 of the .sup.133Cs MAS NMR spectra for the Cu.sup.2+-doped material (x = 0.10); acquired at 11.75 T with a spinning frequency of 13 kHz. Temperature (T/K) δ.sub.iso(.sup.133Cs) 238 291 323 343 Fitted Linear Equation Peak-1 77 82 84 85 δ.sub.iso(.sup.133Cs)/ppm = −6.3 (1000/T) + 102.9; R.sup.2 = 0.999 Peak-2 −34 −13 −3 3 δ.sub.iso(.sup.133Cs)/ppm = −30.9 (1000/T) + 89.9; R.sup.2 = 0.999 Peak-3 −147 −105 −87 −74 δ.sub.iso(.sup.133Cs)/ppm = −60.4 (1000/T) + 95.4; R.sup.2 = 0.998

(111) Peak-1 changes slowly with temperature; while not wishing to be limited by theory, the small temperature dependence (0.08 ppm/K) for this peak was attributed to the temperature-induced changes in local structure, such as changes in the unit cell or position within the cuboctahedron (confirmed from variable temperature NMR spectroscopy on the Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 parent material, FIG. 22). In contrast, the much larger temperature dependence of the chemical shifts of Peak-2 and Peak-3 (0.35 and 0.70 ppm/K, respectively) are a clear indication of the impact of neighboring Cu.sup.2+ ions, confirming that the Cs residing in the A site of the double perovskite is in proximity to the induced defect site with increasing incorporation of copper. Extrapolating to “infinite temperature” gives the diamagnetic isotropic chemical shift of about 96±7 ppm, which is within the expected chemical shift range for the diamagnetic Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 parent material (x=0.00, δ.sub.iso(.sup.133Cs)=85±1 ppm) at 343 K (FIG. 23). While not wishing to be limited by theory, the fact that the temperature dependence is Curie-like (i.e., the paramagnetic effect decreases with increasing temperature) and additive indicates either that contact occurs through two uncoupled copper centers or that the coupling between the two copper centers is smaller than the thermal energy..sup.34,43

(112) Cesium-133 MAS NMR spectra and PXRD patterns for cesium-containing chlorides, including CsCl, Cs.sub.3Sb.sub.2Cl.sub.9, Cs.sub.4CuSb.sub.2Cl.sub.12, and Cs.sub.2CuCl.sub.4, were acquired (FIG. 24)..sup.21(a),51 These spectra are distinct from those for Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 parent and Cu.sup.2+-doped materials. The distinct chemical shifts for each .sup.133Cs resonance as a function of temperature also correlate well with the EDX, ICP, and PXRD results (vide supra), leading to further support indicating that Cs.sup.+ is being observed in a cuboctahedron with one and two Cu.sup.2+ neighbors; this is consistent with the structure expected for a Cu.sup.2+-doped Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 double perovskite and not from Cs-containing impurity phases.

III. Long Term Stability

(113) A major concern with lead-containing hybrid perovskites is their low stability upon exposure to light, moisture, and heat..sup.3(b),5 Therefore, the moisture and thermal stability of both the Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 parent and of the Cu.sup.2+-doped materials were examined. Polycrystalline materials were placed in a custom-built humidity chamber (FIG. 2) with a relative humidity (RH) of 55±5% under otherwise normal laboratory conditions for 365 days (x=0.00) and 30 days (x=0.10). Based on analyses of the .sup.133Cs MAS NMR spectra (FIG. 25, upper image), PXRD patterns (FIG. 25, lower image) and absorption spectra (FIG. 26, upper image), there are no indications of decomposition from either material, and their bandgaps are retained under humid conditions. TGA indicates that materials with (x=0.01) and without Cu.sup.2+ doping are stable up to 250° C. (FIG. 26, lower image), similar to the thermal stability for the copper-antimony (111) perovskite (245° C.) reported by Vargas et al..sup.21(a) Long-term thermal stability studies were undertaken by heating these materials at 110° C. for 6 days under otherwise ambient conditions; .sup.133Cs NMR, PXRD, and absorption spectra analysis (FIG. 25 and FIG. 26) again indicate high structural and optical stability with no evidence of decomposition.

IV. .SUP.121.Sb NMR Lineshape Analysis of Cs.SUB.2.SbAgCl.SUB.6

(114) Since .sup.121Sb has a large quadrupole moment (Q=−36.0 fm.sup.2) and I=5/2, the lineshape and breadth of the NMR spectra are often dominated by the quadrupolar interaction. However, for the parent Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 material, the Sb sites are located at an octahedral position within a cubic space group such that the overall EFG would be expected to be zero. In practice, slight defects or distortions within the lattice may impact the symmetry about some .sup.121Sb nuclei, such that a quadrupolar interaction is detected despite the octahedral symmetry. Analysis of the spectra acquired under non-spinning and MAS conditions as well as at multiple field strengths assist in determining these interactions. Other anisotropic interactions that may contribute to the linewidth and shape include magnetic shielding anisotropy, and direct (dipolar) and indirect (J-coupling) spin-spin coupling. A small quadrupolar interaction of 1 MHz would lead to a 30 Hz second order broadening contribution at 21.1 T, while the non-spinning linewidth is 3.2 kHz. The linewidth remains nearly constant across three magnetic field strengths (B.sub.o=7.05, 11.75 and 21.1 T). Since magnetic shielding scales linearly with field and the second order quadrupole broadening is inversely related, these anisotropic interactions are negligible in their contribution (i.e. <1 ppm). Magic-angle spinning reduces the linewidth by nearly 50% (1.5 kHz) to a FWHM of 1.8 kHz, indicating a contribution from heteronuclear dipole coupling between .sup.121Sb and .sup.35/37Cl, the remaining MAS linewidth is attributed to indirect spin-spin coupling between .sup.121Sb (N.A.=57.2%) and the six coordinating .sub.35/37Cl anions (.sup.35Cl: N.A.=75.8%, I=3/2 and .sup.37Cl: N.A.=24.2%, I=3/2). The Gaussian-like .sup.121Sb peak is attributed to the complex splitting pattern arising from spin-spin coupling of .sup.121Sb to the two Cl isotopes, further complicated by the quadrupole coupling interaction expected for the Cl isotopes, which is expected to be significant since these nuclei are not in a high-symmetry position. Hence, a complex J-splitting pattern that is unresolved at 7.05 T is observed..sup.52

V. Summary/Conclusions

(115) In this example, Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6 and its Cu.sup.2+-doped double perovskite materials were investigated. The PXRD, EPR, and NMR results indicate a well-ordered double perovskite cubic crystal structure with Cu.sup.2+ integrated into the lattice, creating local defect sites in multiple local Cs.sup.+ and Sb.sup.3+ arrangements, whereby Cu.sup.2+ preferentially substitutes for Ag.sup.+. These findings are further reinforced by EDX measurements and are consistent with Pauling electronegativity arguments. The optical properties of the material are directly related to the Cu.sup.2+ doping, which leads to a reduction of the optical indirect bandgap, from 2.65 eV for the parent material to 1.02 eV for the x=0.10 Cu.sup.2+-doped material. The material's feasibility for photovoltaic applications was further examined through thermal and moisture exposure, demonstrating long-term structural and photophysical stability up to 365 days. Likewise, a series of DFT calculations for double perovskites including the parent compound studied here (Cs.sub.2SbAgCl.sub.6) indicate these materials exhibit small carrier effective masses (<0.4 m.sub.e), which are comparable to those calculated for MAPbI.sub.3..sup.39,53 Based on the observations discussed above, while not wishing to be limited by theory, Cu.sup.2+ doping creates a cation defect, which could, for example, lead to an increase in conductivity. In summary, the antimony-silver based double perovskites presented herein exhibit several desirable properties in comparison to lead halide perovskites including the potential for greater bandgap tunability and superior stability, as well as being composed of inexpensive and highly abundant elements.

(116) While the present application has been described with reference to what are presently considered to be the preferred examples, it is to be understood that the application is not limited to the disclosed examples. To the contrary, the present application is intended to cover various modifications and equivalent arrangements included within the spirit and scope of the appended claims.

(117) All publications, patents and patent applications are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference in its entirety. Where a term in the present application is found to be defined differently in a document incorporated herein by reference, the definition provided herein is to serve as the definition for the term.

FULL CITATIONS FOR DOCUMENTS REFERRED TO IN THE DESCRIPTION

(118) .sup.1 (a) Kojima, A.; Teshima, K.; Shirai, Y.; Miyasaka, T. Organometal Halide Perovskites as Visible-Light Sensitizers for Photovoltaic Cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2009, 131, 6050-6051. (b) Green, M. A.; Hishikawa, Y.; Warta, W.; Dunlop, E. D.; Levi, D. H.; Hohl-Ebinger, J.; Ho-Baillie, A. W. H. Solar Cell Efficiency Tables (version 50). Prog. Photovoltaics 2017, 25, 668-676. .sup.2 (a) Tan, Z.-K.; Moghaddam, R. S.; Lai, M. L.; Docampo, P.; Higler, R.; Deschler, F.; Price, M.; Sadhanala, A.; Pazos, L. M.; Credgington, D.; et al. Bright Light-Emitting Diodes Based on Organometal Halide Perovskite. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2014, 9, 687-692. (b) Zhu, H.; Fu, Y.; Meng, F.; Wu, X.; Gong, Z.; Ding, Q.; Gustafsson, M. V.; Trinh, M. T.; Jin, S.; Zhu, X. Y. Lead Halide Perovskite Nanowire Lasers with Low Lasing Thresholds and High Quality Factors. Nat. Mater. 2015, 14, 636-642. (c) Xing, G.; Mathews, N.; Lim, S. S.; Yantara, N.; Liu, X.; Sabba, D.; Grätzel, M.; Mhaisalkar, S.; Sum, T. C. Low-Temperature Solution-Processed Wavelength-Tunable Perovskites for Lasing. Nat. Mater. 2014, 13, 476-480. (d) Jeon, N. J.; Noh, J. H.; Yang, W. S.; Kim, Y. C.; Ryu, S.; Seo, J.; Seok, S. I. Compositional Engineering of Perovskite Materials for High-Performance Solar Cells. Nature 2015, 517, 476-480. (e) Liu, M.; Johnston, M. B.; Snaith, H. J. Efficient Planar Heterojunction Perovskite Solar Cells by Vapour Deposition. Nature 2013, 501, 395-398. (f) Shi, D.; Adinolfi, V.; Comin, R.; Yuan, M.; Alarousu, E.; Buin, A.; Chen, Y.; Hoogland, S.; Rothenberger, A.; Katsiev, K.; et al. Low Trap-State Density and Long Carrier Diffusion in Organolead Trihalide Perovskite Single Crystals. Science 2015, 347, 519-522. .sup.3 (a) Yang, J.; Siempelkamp, B. D.; Mosconi, E.; De Angelis, F.; Kelly, T. L. Origin of the Thermal Instability in CH.sub.3NH.sub.3PbI.sub.3 Thin Films Deposited on ZnO. Chem. Mater. 2015, 27, 4229-4236. (b) Berhe, T. A.; Su, W.-N.; Chen, C.-H.; Pan, C.-J.; Cheng, J.-H.; Chen, H.-M.; Tsai, M.-C.; Chen, L.-Y.; Dubale, A. A.; Hwang, B.-J. Organometal Halide Perovskite Solar Cells: Degradation and Stability. Energy Environ. Sci. 2016, 9, 323-356. .sup.4 (a) Needleman, H. Lead Poisoning. Annu. Rev. Med. 2004, 55, 209-222. (b) Babayigit, A.; Ethirajan, A.; Muller, M.; Conings, B. Toxicity of Organometal Halide Perovskite Solar Cells. Nat. Mater. 2016, 15, 247-251. .sup.5 (a) Christians, J. A.; Miranda Herrera, P. A.; Kamat, P. V. Transformation of the Excited State and Photovoltaic Efficiency of CH.sub.3NH.sub.3PbI.sub.3 Perovskite upon Controlled Exposure to Humidified Air. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2015, 137, 1530-1538. (b) Leguy, M. A.; Hu, Y.; Campoy-quiles, M.; Alonso, M. I.; Weber, O. J.; Azarhoosh, P.; van Schilfgaarde, M.; Weller, M. T.; Bein, T.; Nelson, J.; Docampo, P.; Barnes, P. R. F. Reversible Hydration of CH.sub.3NH.sub.3PbI.sub.3 in Films, Single Crystals, and Solar Cells. Chem. Mater. 2015, 27, 3397-3407. (c) Askar, A. M.; Bernard, G. M.; Wiltshire, B.; Shankar, K.; Michaelis, V. K. Multinuclear Magnetic Resonance Tracking of Hydro, Thermal, and Hydrothermal Decomposition of CH.sub.3NH.sub.3PbI.sub.3. J. Phys. Chem. C 2017, 121, 1013-1024. .sup.6 (a) Saliba, M.; Matsui, T.; Seo, J. Y.; Domanski, K.; Correa-Baena, J. P.; Nazeeruddin, M. K.; Zakeeruddin, S. M.; Tress, W.; Abate, A.; Hag-feldt, A.; et al. Cesium-Containing Triple Cation Perovskite Solar Cells: Improved Stability, Reproducibility and High Efficiency. Energy Environ. Sci. 2016, 9, 1989-1997. (b) Li, Z.; Yang, M.; Park, J. S.; Wei, S. H.; Berry, J. J.; Zhu, K. Stabilizing Perovskite Structures by Tuning Tolerance Factor: Formation of Formamidinium and Cesium Lead Iodide Solid-State Alloys. Chem. Mater. 2016, 28, 284-292. (c) Zhang, M.; Yun, J. S.; Ma, Q.; Zheng, J.; Lau, C. F. J.; Deng, X.; Kim, J.; Kim, D.; Seidel, J.; Green, M. A.; et al. High-Efficiency Rubidium-Incorporated Perovskite Solar Cells by Gas Quenching. ACS Energy Lett. 2017, 2, 438-444. .sup.7 (a) Eperon, G. E.; Leijtens, T.; Bush, K. A.; Green, T.; Wang, J. T.-W.; McMeekin, D. P.; Volonakis, G.; Milot, R. L.; Slotcavage, D. J.; Belisle, R.; et al. Perovskite-Perovskite Tandem Photovoltaics with Ideal Bandgaps. Science 2016, 354, 861-865. (b) Tan, H.; Jain, A.; Voznyy, O.; Lan, X.; Arquer, F. P. G. de; Fan, J. Z.; Quintero-Bermudez, R.; Yuan, M.; Zhang, B.; Zhao, Y.; et al. Efficient and Stable Solution Processed Planar Perovskite Solar Cell via Contact Passivation. Science 2017, 355, 722-726. .sup.8 (a) Lau, C. F. J.; Zhang, M.; Deng, X.; Zheng, J.; Bing, J.; Ma, Q.; Kim, J.; Hu, L.; Green, M. A.; Huang, S.; et al. Stronti-um-Doped Low-Temperature-Processed CsPbI.sub.2Br Perovskite Solar Cells. ACS Energy Lett. 2017, 2, 2319-2325. (b) Zuo, F.; Williams, S. T.; Liang, P. W.; Chueh, C. C.; Liao, C. Y.; Jen, A. K. Y. Binary-Metal Perovskites Toward High-Performance Planar-Heterojunction Hybrid Solar Cells. Adv. Mater. 2014, 26, 6454-6460. (c) Klug, M. T.; Osherov, A.; Haghighirad, A. A.; Stranks, S. D.; Brown, P. R.; Bai, S.; Wang, J. T. W.; Dang, X.; Bulović, V.; Snaith, H. J.; et al. Tailoring Metal Halide Perovskites through Metal Substitution: Influence on Photovoltaic and Material Properties. Energy Environ. Sci. 2017, 10, 236-246. .sup.9 Abdelhady, A. L.; Saidaminov, M. I.; Murali, B.; Adinolfi, V.; Voznyy, O.; Katsiev, K.; Alarousu, E.; Comin, R.; Dursun, I.; Sinatra, L.; et al. Heterovalent Dopant Incorporation for Bandgap and Type Engineering of Perovskite Crystals. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2016, 7, 295-301. .sup.10 (a) Levchuk, I.; Osvet, A.; Tang, X.; Brandl, M.; Perea, J. D.; Hoegl, F.; Matt, G. J.; Hock, R.; Batentschuk, M.; Brabec, C. J. Brightly Luminescent and Color-Tunable Formamidinium Lead Halide Perovskite FAPbX3 (X=Cl, Br, I) Colloidal Nanocrystals. Nano Lett. 2017, 17, 2765-2770. (b) Hu, Y.; Bai, F.; Liu, X.; Ji, Q.; Miao, X.; Qiu, T.; Zhang, S. Bismuth Incorporation Stabilized α-CsPbI.sub.3 for Fully Inorganic Perovskite Solar Cells. ACS Energy Lett. 2017, 2, 2219-2227. (c) Lee, J.-W.; Kim, D.-H.; Kim, H.-S.; Seo, S.-W.; Cho, S. M.; Park, N.-G. Formamidinium and Cesium Hybridization for Photo- and Moisture-Stable Perovskite Solar Cell. Adv. Energy Mater. 2015, 5, 1501310. .sup.11 Dang, Y.; Zhou, Y.; Liu, X.; Ju, D.; Xia, S.; Xia, H.; Tao, X. Formation of Hybrid Perovskite Tin Iodide Single Crystals by Top-Seeded Solution Growth. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2016, 55, 3447-3450. .sup.12 Babu, R.; Giribabu, L.; Singh, S. P. Recent Advances in Halide-Based Perovskite Crystals and their Optoelectronic Applications. Cryst. Growth Des. 2018, 18, 2645-2664. .sup.13 (a) Slavney, A. H.; Hu, T.; Lindenberg, A. M.; Karunadasa, H. I. A Bismuth-Halide Double Perovskite with Long Carrier Recombination Lifetime for Photovoltaic Applications. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2016, 138, 2138-2141. (b) Volonakis, G.; Haghighirad, A. A.; Milot, R. L.; Sio, W. H.; Filip, M. R.; Wenger, B.; Johnston, M. B.; Herz, L. M.; Snaith, H. J.; Giustino, F. Cs.sub.2InAgCl.sub.6: A New Lead-Free Halide Double Perovskite with Direct Band Gap. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2017, 8, 772-778. (c) McClure, E. T.; Ball, M. R.; Windl, W.; Woodward, P. M. Cs.sub.2AgBiX.sub.6 (X=Br, C): New Visible Light Absorbing, Lead-Free Halide Perovskite Semiconductors. Chem. Mater. 2016, 28, 1348-1354. (d) Filip, M. R.; Liu, X.; Miglio, A.; Hautier, G.; Giustino, F. Phase Diagrams and Stability of Lead-Free Halide Double Perovskites Cs.sub.2BB′X.sub.6: B=Sb and Bi, B′=Cu, Ag, and Au, and X=C, Br, and I. J. Phys. Chem. C 2018, 122, 158-170. (e) Jain, A.; Voznyy, O.; Sargent, E. H. High-Throughput Screening of Lead-Free Perovskite-like Materials for Optoelectronic Applications. J. Phys. Chem. C 2017, 121, 7183-7187. (f) Wei, F.; Deng, Z.; Sun, S.; Zhang, F.; Evans, D. M.; Kieslich, G.; Tominaka, S.; Carpenter, M. A.; Zhang, J.; Bristowe, P. D.; et al. Synthesis and Properties of a Lead-Free Hybrid Double Perovskite: (CH.sub.3NH.sub.3).sub.2AgBiBr.sub.6. Chem. Mater. 2017, 29, 1089-1094. .sup.14 (a) Du, K. Z.; Meng, W.; Wang, X.; Yan, Y.; Mitzi, D. B. Bandgap Engineering of Lead-Free Double Perovskite Cs.sub.2AgBiBr.sub.6 through Trivalent Metal Alloying. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2017, 56, 8158-8162. (b) Tran, T. T.; Panella, J. R.; Chamorro, J. R.; Morey, J. R.; McQueen, T. M. Designing Indirect-Direct Bandgap Transitions in Double Perovskites. Mater. Horiz. 2017, 4, 688-693. (c) Slavney, A. H.; Leppert, L.; Bartesaghi, D.; Gold-Parker, A.; Toney, M. F.; Savenije, T. J.; Neaton, J. B.; Karunadasa, H. I. Defect-Induced Band-Edge Reconstruction of a Bismuth-Halide Double Perovskite for Visible-Light Absorption. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2017, 139, 5015-5018. .sup.15 Deng, W.; Deng, Z.; He, J.; Wang, M.; Chen, Z.; Wei, S.; Feng, H.-J. Synthesis of Cs.sub.2AgSbCl.sub.6 and Improved Optoelectronic Properties of Cs.sub.2AgSbCl.sub.6/TiO.sub.2 Heterostructure Driven by the Interface Effect for Lead-Free Double Perovskites Solar Cells. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2017, 111, 151602. .sup.16 (a) Bekenstein, Y.; Dahl, J. C.; Huang, J.; Osowiecki, W. T.; Swabeck, J. K.; Chan, E. M.; Yang, P.; Alivisatos, A. P. The Making and Breaking of Lead-Free Double Perovskite Nanocrystals of Cesium Silver-Bismuth Halide Compositions. Nano Lett. 2018, 18, 3502-3508. (b) Creutz, S. E.; Crites, E. N.; De Siena, M. C.; Gamelin, D. R. Colloidal Nanocrystals of Lead-Free Double-Perovskite (Elpasolite) Semiconductors: Synthesis and Anion Exchange to Access New Materials. Nano Lett. 2018, 18, 1118-1123. .sup.17 Connor, B. A.; Leppert, L.; Smith, M. D.; Neaton, J. B.; Karunadasa, H. I. Layered Halide Double Perovskites: Dimensional Reduction of Cs.sub.2AgBiBr.sub.6. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2018, 140, 5235-5240. .sup.18 Pantaler, M.; Cho, K. T.; Queloz, V.; Garcia Benito, I.; Fettkenhauer, C.; Anusca, I.; Nazeeruddin, M. K.; Lupascu, D. C.; Grancini, G. Hysteresis-Free Lead-Free Double Perovskite Solar Cells by Interface Engineering. ACS Energy Lett. 2018, 3, 1781-1786. .sup.19 Greul, E.; Petrus, M. L.; Binek, A.; Docampo, P.; Bein, T. Highly Stable, Phase Pure Cs.sub.2AgBiBr.sub.6 Double Perovskite Thin Films for Optoelectronic Applications. J. Mater. Chem. A 2017, 5, 19972-19981. .sup.20 Slavney, A. H.; Leppert, L.; Saldivar Valdes, A.; Bartesaghi, D.; Savenije, T. J.; Neaton, J. B.; Karunadasa, H. Small-Bandgap Halide Double Perovskites. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2018, 57, 12765-12770. .sup.21 (a) Vargas, B.; Ramos, E.; Pérez-Gutiérrez, E.; Alonso, J. C.; Solis-Ibarra, D. A Direct Bandgap Copper-Antimony Halide Perovskite. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2017, 139, 9116-9119. (b) Singhal, N.; Chakraborty, R.; Ghosh, P.; Nag, A. Low-Bandgap Cs.sub.4CuSb.sub.2Cl.sub.12 Layered Double Perovskite: Synthesis, Reversible Thermal Changes, and Magnetic Interaction. Chem.-Asian J. 2018, 13, 2085-2092. .sup.22 (a) Abram, R. A.; Rees, G. J.; Wilson, B. L. H. Heavily Doped Semiconductors and Devices. Adv. Phys. 1978, 27, 799-892. (b) Piao, Y.; Meany, B.; Powell, L. R.; Valley, N.; Kwon, H.; Schatz, G. C.; Wang, Y. Brightening of Carbon Nanotube Photoluminescence through the Incorporation of sp.sup.3 Defects. Nat. Chem. 2013, 5, 840-845. .sup.23 (a) Misra, R. K.; Aharon, S.; Li, B.; Mogilyansky, D.; Visoly-Fisher, I.; Etgar, L.; Katz, E. A. Temperature- and Component-Dependent Degradation of Perovskite Photovoltaic Materials under Concentrated Sunlight. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2015, 6, 326-330. (b) Shao, H.; Bai, X.; Cui, H.; Pan, G.; Jing, P.; Qu, S.; Zhu, J.; Zhai, Y.; Dong, B.; Song, H. White Light Emission in Bi.sup.3+/Mn.sup.2+ Ion Co-Doped CsPbCl.sub.3 Perovskite Nanocrystals. Nanoscale 2018, 10, 1023-1029. (c) Das Adhikari, S.; Dutta, A.; Dutta, S. K.; Pradhan, N. Layered Perovskites L.sub.2(Pb.sub.1-xMn.sub.x)Cl.sub.4 to Mn-Doped CsPbCl.sub.3 Perovskite Platelets. ACS Energy Lett. 2018, 3, 1247-1253. (d) Meinardi, F.; Akkerman, Q. A.; Bruni, F.; Park, S.; Mauri, M.; Dang, Z.; Manna, L.; Brovelli, S. Doped Halide Perovskite Nanocrystals for Reabsorption-Free Luminescent Solar Concentrators. ACS Energy Lett. 2017, 2, 2368-2377. .sup.24 Zhou, Y.; Chen, J.; Bakr, O. M.; Sun, H. Metal-Doped Lead Halide Perovskites: Synthesis, Properties, and Optoelectronic Applications. Chem. Mater. 2018, 30, 6589-6613. .sup.25 K, N. N.; Nag, A. Synthesis and Luminescence of Mn-Doped Cs.sub.2AgInCl.sub.6 Double Perovskites. Chem. Commun. 2018, 54, 5205-5208. .sup.26 Yin, W.; Shi, T.; Yan, Y. Superior Photovoltaic Properties of Lead Halide Perovskites: Insights from First-Principles Theory. J. Phys. Chem. C 2015, 119, 5253-5264. .sup.27 Kubelka, P.; Munk, F. Z. Ein Beitrag Zur Optik Der Farbanstriche. Technol. Phys. 1931, 12, 593-601. .sup.28 (a) Mansfield, P. Multiple-Pulse Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Transients in Solids. Phys. Rev. 1965, 137, A961-A974. (b) Bodart, P. R.; Amoureux, J. P.; Dumazy, Y.; Lefort, R. Theoretical and Experimental Study of Quadrupolar Echoes for Half-integer Spins in Static Solid State NMR. Mol. Phys. 2000, 98, 1545-1551. (c) Davis, J. H.; Jeffrey, K. R.; Bloom, M.; Valic, M. I.; Higgs, T. P. Quadrupolar Echo Deuteron Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy in Ordered Hydrocarbon Chains. Chem. Phys. Lett. 1976, 42, 390-394. .sup.29 (a) Faucher, A.; Terskikh, V. V; Wasylishen, R. E. Assessing Distortion of the AF.sub.6 (A=As, Sb) Octahedra in Solid Hexafluorometallates (V) via NMR Spectroscopy. Can. J. Chem. 2015, 93, 938-944. (b) Harris, R. K.; Becker, E. D.; de Menrzes, S. M. C.; Goodfellow, R.; Granger, P. Commission on Molecular Structure and Spectroscopy. Pure Appl. Chem. 2001, 73, 1795-1818. .sup.30 Bernard, G. M.; Goyal, A.; Miskolzie, M.; McKay, R.; Wu, Q.; Wasylishen, R. E.; Michaelis, V. K. Methylammonium Lead Chloride: A Sensitive Sample for an Accurate NMR Thermometer. J. Magn. Reson. 2017, 283, 14-21. .sup.31 Jeener, J.; Meier, B. H.; Bachmann, P.; Ernst, R. R. Investigation of Exchange Processes by Two-dimensional NMR Spectroscopy. J. Chem. Phys. 1979, 71, 4546-4553. .sup.32 Hull, S.; Keen, D. A. Pressure-Induced Phase Transitions in AgCl, AgBr, and Ag. Phys. Rev. B 1999, 59, 750-761. .sup.33 (a) Yang, M.; Wen-chen, Z.; Lv, H. Defect Structure and Spin-Hamiltonian Parameters for the CuCl6.sup.4− Cluster in the Tetragonal RbCdCl.sub.3:Cu.sup.2+ crystal. Spectrochim. Acta, Part A 2009, 72, 515-517. (b) Wei, M.; Willett, R. D.; Hipps, K. W. EPR, Electronic, and Vibrational Spectra of the CuCl6.sup.4− Anion in [tris(2-aminoethyl)-amineH.sub.4].sub.2[CuCl.sub.6]Cl.sub.4.2H.sub.2O and Crystal Structure of the Complex. Inorg. Chem. 1996, 35, 5300-5303. (c) Mcdonald, R. G.; Hitchman, M. A. Electronic, EPR and Vibrational Spectra of the Hexachlorocuprate(4−) Ion. Inorg. Chem. 1989, 28, 3996-4001. .sup.34 Stratemeier, H.; Wagner, B.; Krausz, E. R.; Linder, R.; Schmidtke, H.; Pebler, J.; Hatfield, W. E.; ter Haar, L.; Reinen, D.; Hitchman, M. A. EPR and Electronic Spectra of (3-chloroanilinium).sub.8[CuCl.sub.6]Cl.sub.4: Evidence for Tetragonally Elongated CuCl.sub.6.sup.4− Ions with the Long Axis Disordered in 2-Dimensions. Inorg. Chem. 1994, 33, 2320-2329. .sup.35 Shannon, B. Y. R. D.; H, M.; Baur, N. H.; Gibbs, O. H.; Eu, M.; Cu, V. Revised Effective Ionic R384747adii and Systematic Studies of Interatomie Distances in Halides and Chaleogenides. Acta Crystallogr., Sect. A: Cryst. Phys., Diffr., Theor. Gen. Crystallogr. 1976, 32, 751-767. .sup.36 Pramanick, A.; Wang, X. P.; Hoffmann, C.; Diallo, S. O.; Jorgensen, M. R. V; Wang, X. Microdomain Dynamics in Single-Crystal BaTiO3 during Paraelectric-Ferroelectric Phase Transition Measured with Time-of-Flight Neutron Scattering. Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 2015, 92, 174103. .sup.37 Nayak, P.; Sendner, M.; Wenger, B.; Wang, Z.; Sharma, K.; Ramadan, A. J.; Lovrincic, R.; Pucci, A.; Madhu, P. K.; Snaith, H. J. The Impact of Bi.sup.3+ Heterovalent Doping in Organic-Inorganic Metal Halide Perovskite Crystals. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2018, 140, 574-577. .sup.38 Fedeli, P.; Gazza, F.; Calestani, D.; Ferro, P.; Besagni, T.; Zappettini, A.; Calestani, G.; Marchi, E.; Ceroni, P.; Mosca, R. Influence of the Synthetic Procedures on the Structural and Optical Properties of Mixed-Halide (Br, I) Perovskite Films. J. Phys. Chem. C 2015, 119, 21304-21313. .sup.39 Volonakis, G.; Filip, M. R.; Haghighirad, A. A.; Sakai, N.; Wenger, B.; Snaith, H. J.; Giustino, F. Lead-Free Halide Double Perovskites via Heterovalent Substitution of Noble Metals. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2016, 7, 1254-1259. .sup.40 (a) Knop, O.; Wasylishen, R. E.; White, M. A.; Cameron, T. S.; Van Oort, M. J. M. Alkylammonium Lead Halides. Part 2. CH.sub.3NH.sub.3PbX.sub.3 (X=Cl, Br, I) Perovskites: Cuboctahedral Halide Cages with Isotropic Cation Reorientation. Can. J. Chem. 1990, 68, 412-422. (b) Kubicki, D. J.; Prochowicz, D.; Hofstetter, A.; Zakeeruddin, S. M.; Grstzel, M.; Emsley, L. Phase Segregation in Potassium-Doped Lead Halide Perovskites from .sup.39K Solid-State NMR at 21.1 T. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2018, 140, 7232-7238. (c) Senocrate, A.; Moudrakovski, I.; Kim, G. Y.; Yang, T.; Gregori, G.; Grstzel, M.; Maier, J. The Nature of Ion Conduction in Methylammonium Lead Iodide: A Multimethod Approach. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2017, 56, 7755-7759. (d) Fabini, D. H.; Siaw, T. A.; Stoumpos, C. C.; Laurita, G.; Olds, D.; Page, K.; Hu, J. G.; Kanatzidis, M. G.; Han, S.; Seshadri, R. Universal Dynamics of Molecular Reorientation in Hybrid Lead Iodide Perovskites. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2017, 139, 16875-16884. (e) Rosales, B. A.; Men, L.; Cady, S. D.; Hanrahan, M. P.; Rossini, A. J.; Vela, J. Persistent Dopants and Phase Segregation in Organolead Mixed-Halide Perovskites. Chem. Mater. 2016, 28, 6848-6859. (f) Franssen, W. M. J.; Van Es, S. G. D.; Dervisoylu, R.; De Wijs, G. A.; Kentgens, A. P. M. Symmetry, Dynamics, and Defects in Methylammonium Lead Halide Perovskites. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2017, 8, 61-66. (g) Prochowicz, D.; Yadav, P.; Saliba, M.; Kubicki, D. J.; Tavakoli, M. M.; Zakeeruddin, S. M.; Lewinski, J.; Emsley, L.; Grstzel, M. One-Step Mechanochemical Incorporation of an Insoluble Cesium Additive for High Performance Planar Heterojunction Solar Cells. Nano Energy 2018, 49, 523-528. (h) Wasylishen, R. E.; Knop, O.; Macdonald, J. B. Cation Rotation in Methylammonium Lead Halides. Solid State Commun. 1985, 56, 581-582. (i) Karmakar, A.; Askar, A. M.; Bernard, G. M.; Terskikh, V. V.; Ha, M.; Patel, S.; Shankar, K.; Michaelis, V. K. Mechanochemical Synthesis of Methylammonium Lead Mixed-Halide Perovskites: Unraveling the Solid-Solution Behavior Using Solid-State NMR. Chem. Mater. 2018, 30, 2309-2321. (j) Askar, A. M.; Karmakar, A.; Bernard, G. M.; Ha, M.; Terskikh, V. V.; Wiltshire, B. D.; Patel, S.; Fleet, J.; Shankar, K.; Michaelis, V. K. Composition-Tunable Formamidinium Lead Mixed Halide Perov skites via Solvent-Free Mechanochemical Synthesis: Decoding the Pb Environments Using Solid-State NMR Spectroscopy. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2018, 9, 2671-2677. (k) Bernard, G. M.; Goyal, A.; Miskolzie, M.; McKay, R.; Wu, Q.; Wasylishen, R. E.; Michaelis, V. K. Methylammonium Lead Chloride: A Sensitive Sample for an Accurate NMR Thermometer. J. Magn. Reson. 2017, 283, 14-21. (I) Bernard, G. M.; Wasylishen, R. E.; Ratcliffe, C. I.; Terskikh, V.; Wu, Q.; Buriak, J. M.; Hauger, T. Methylammonium Cation Dynamics in Methylammonium Lead Halide Perovskites: A Solid-State NMR Perspective. J. Phys. Chem. A 2018, 122, 1560-1573. (m) Kubicki, D. J.; Prochowicz, D.; Hofstetter, A.; Saski, M.; Yadav, P.; Bi, D.; Pellet, N.; Lewiński, J.; Zakeeruddin, S. M.; Grätzel, M.; et al. Formation of Stable Mixed Guanidinium-Methylammonium Phases with Exceptionally Long Carrier Lifetimes for High-Efficiency Lead Iodide-Based Perovskite Photovoltaics. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2018, 140, 3345-3351. (n) Kubicki, D. J.; Prochowicz, D.; Hofstetter, A.; Zakeeruddin, S. M.; Grätzel, M.; Emsley, L. Phase Segregation in Cs-, Rb- and K-Doped Mixed-Cation (MA).sub.x(FA).sub.1-xPbI.sub.3 Hybrid Perovskites from Solid-State NMR. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2017, 139, 14173-14180. (o) Kubicki, D. J.; Prochowicz, D.; Hofstetter, A.; Péchy, P.; Zakeeruddin, S. M.; Grstzel, M.; Emsley, L. Cation Dynamics in Mixed-Cation (MA).sub.x(FA).sub.1-xPbI.sub.3 Hybrid Perovskites from Solid-State NMR. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2017, 139, 10055-10061. .sup.41 Faucher, A.; Terskikh, V. V.; Wasylishen, R. E. Assessing Distortion of the AF.sub.6 (A=As, Sb) Octahedra in Solid Hexafluorometallates (V) via NMR Spectroscopy. Can. J. Chem. 2015, 93, 938-944. .sup.42 Harris, R. K.; Becker, E. D.; de Menrzes, S. M. C.; Goodfellow, R.; Granger, P. Commission on Molecular Structure and Spectroscopy. Pure Appl. Chem. 2001, 73, 1795-1818. .sup.43 Bertini, I.; Luchinat, C.; Parigi, G.; Ravera, E. NMR of Paramagnetic Molecules; Elsevier: 2016. .sup.44 Kurland, R. J.; Mcgarvey, B. R. Isotropic NMR Shifts in Transition Metal Complexes: The Calculation of the Fermi Contact and Pseudocontact Terms. J. Magn. Reson. 1970, 2, 286-301. .sup.45 Walder, B. J.; Patterson, A. M.; Baltisberger, J. H.; Grandinetti, P. J. Hydrogen Motional Disorder in Crystalline Iron Group Chloride Dihydrates. J. Chem. Phys. 2018, 149, 084503. .sup.46 (a) Van Vleck, J. H. The Theory of Electric and Magnetic Susceptibilities; Oxford University Press: 1932; p 226. (b) Kurland, R. J.; Mcgarvey, B. R. Isotropic NMR Shifts in Transition Metal Complexes: The Calculation of the Fermi Contact and Pseudocontact Terms. J. Magn. Reson. 1970, 2, 286-301. (c) Walder, B. J.; Patterson, A. M.; Baltisberger, J. H.; Grandinetti, P. J. Hydrogen Motional Disorder in Crystalline Iron Group Chloride Dihydrates. J. Chem. Phys. 2018, 149, 084503. .sup.47 (a) Michaelis, V. K.; Greer, B. J.; Aharen, T.; Greedan, J. E.; Kroeker, S. Determining Electron Spin-Transfer Mechanisms in Paramagnetic Ba2YMO6 (M=Mo, Re, Ru) Double Perovskites by 8.sup.9Y and 1.sup.37Ba MAS NMR Spectroscopy. J. Phys. Chem. C 2012, 116, 23646-23652. (b) Carlier, D.; Menetrier, M.; Grey, C. P.; Delmas, C.; Ceder, G. Understanding the NMR Shifts in Paramagnetic Transition Metal Oxides Using Density Functional Theory Calculations. Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 2003, 67, 174103. .sup.48 La Mar, G. N.; Horrocks, W. E.; Holm, R. H. NMR of Paramagnetic Molecules; Academic Press: 1973. .sup.49 (a) Wickramasinghe, N. P.; Ishii, Y. Sensitivity Enhancement, Assignment, and Distance Measurement in .sup.13C Solid-State NMR Spectroscopy for Paramagnetic Systems under Fast Magic Angle Spinning. J. Magn. Reson. 2006, 181, 233-243. (b) Ooms, K.; Polenova, T.; Shough, A.; Doren, D. J.; Nash, M. J.; Lobo, R. F. Identification of Mixed Valence Vanadium in ETS-10 Using Electron Paramagnetic Resonance, .sup.51V Solid-State Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, and Density Functional Theory Studies. J. Phys. Chem. C 2009, 113, 10477-10484. (c) Kermarrec, E.; Marjerrison, C. A.; Thompson, C. M.; Maharaj, D. D.; Levin, K.; Kroeker, S.; Granroth, G. E.; Flacau, R.; Yamani, Z.; Greedan, J. E.; Gaulin, B. D.; et al. Frustrated FCC Antiferromagnet Ba.sub.2YOsO.sub.6: Structural Characterization, Magnetic Properties, and Neutron Scattering Studies. Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 2015, 91, 075133. (d) Grey, C. P.; Dupre, N. NMR Studies of Cathode Materials for Lithium-Ion Rechargeable Batteries. Chem. Rev. 2004, 104, 4493-4512. (e) Ishii, Y.; Wickramasinghe, N. P.; Chimon, S. A New Approach in 1D and 2D .sup.13C High-Resolution Solid-State NMR Spectroscopy of Paramagnetic Organometallic Complexes by Very Fast Magic-Angle Spinning. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2003, 125, 3438-3439. (f) Aguiar, P. M.; Katz, M. J.; Leznoff, D. B.; Kroeker, S. Natural Abundance .sup.13C and .sup.15N Solid-state NMR Analysis of Paramagnetic Transition-metal Cyanide Coordination Polymers. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2009, 11, 6925-6934. (g) Grey, C. P.; Smith, M. E.; Cheetham, A. K.; Dobson, C. M.; Dupree, R. MAS NMR Study of Rare-Earth Pyrochlores: Paramagnetic Shifts in the Solid State. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1990, 112, 4670-4675. (h) Brough, A. R.; Grey, C. P.; Dobson, C. M. Paramagnetic Ions as Structural Probes in Solid-State NMR: Distance Measurements in Crystalline Lanthanide Acetates. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1993, 115, 7318-7327. (i) Bertarello, A.; Schubeis, T.; Fuccio, C.; Ravera, E.; Fragai, M.; Parigi, G.; Emsley, L.; Pintacuda, G.; Luchinat, C. Paramagnetic Properties of a Crystalline Iron-Sulfur Protein by Magic-Angle Spinning NMR Spectroscopy. Inorg. Chem. 2017, 56, 6624-6629. (j) Pell, A. J.; Middlemiss, D. S.; Strobridge, F. C.; Miller, J. K.; Cle, J.; Whittingham, M. S.; Emsley, L.; Grey, C. P.; Pintacuda, G. Spin-Transfer Pathways in Paramagnetic Lithium Transition-Metal Phosphates from Combined Broadband Isotropic Solid-State MAS NMR Spectroscopy and DFT Calculations. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2012, 134, 17178-17185. (k) Liu, K.; Ryan, D.; Nakanishi, K.; Mcdermott, A. Solid State NMR Studies of Paramagnetic Coordination Complexes: A Comparison of Protons and Deuterons in Detection and Decoupling. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1995, 117, 6897-6906. .sup.50 Cortecchia, D.; Dewi, H. A.; Yin, J.; Bruno, A.; Chen, S.; Baikie, T.; Boix, P. P.; Grätzel, M.; Mhaisalkar, S.; Soci, C.; et al. Lead-Free MA.sub.2CuCl.sub.xBr.sub.4-x Hybrid Perovskites. Inorg. Chem. 2016, 55, 1044-1052. .sup.51 Helmholz, B. L.; Kruh, R. F. The Crystal Structure of Cesium Chlorocuprate, Cs.sub.2CuCl.sub.4, and the Spectrum of the Chlorocuprate Ion. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1952, 74, 1176-1181. .sup.52 Faucher, A.; Terskikh, V. V; Wasylishen, R. E. Assessing Distortion of the AF.sub.6 (A=As, Sb) Octahedra in Solid Hexafluorometallates (V) via NMR Spectroscopy. Can. J. Chem. 2015, 93, 938-944. .sup.53 Filip, M. R.; Verdi, C.; Giustino, F. G. W. Band Structures and Carrier Effective Masses of CH.sub.3NH.sub.3PbI.sub.3 and Hypothetical Perov-skites of the Type APbI.sub.3: A=NH.sub.4, PH.sub.4, AsH.sub.4, and SbH.sub.4. J. Phys. Chem. C 2015, 119, 25209-25219.