NEW DOPING STRATEGY FOR LAYERED OXIDE ELECTRODE MATERIALS USED IN LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES

Abstract

The present invention features a new way of doping layered cathode materials in lithium ion batteries. Using a .sup.“high entropy” doping strategy, more than four impurity elements can be introduced to the host materials. The present invention applies this high entropy doping strategy to a high nickel content layered oxide material and a lithium-manganese rich material. This new high entropy doping strategy allows the layered oxide materials used in the positive electrode of lithium ion battery to achieve high energy density, long life cycle and reduced reliance on the expensive and toxic cobalt, all of which are desired attributes for improving the performance of lithium ion batteries and reducing their cost.

Claims

1. A composition used in a cathode for a lithium ion battery, the composition represented by a formula Li.sub.aNi.sub.bMn.sub.cTi.sub.dMg.sub.eMo.sub.fNb.sub.gO.sub.h, wherein a ranges from about 1 to 1.03, b ranges from about 0.7 to 0.8, c ranges from about 0.05 to 0.15, d ranges from about 0.001 to 0.025, e ranges from about 0.001 to 0.025, f ranges from about 0.001 to 0.025, g ranges from about 0.001 to 0.025, and h ranges from about 1.9 to 2.1.

2. The composition of claim 1, wherein the composition has a formula LiNi.sub.0.5Mn.sub.0.13Ti.sub.0.02Mg.sub.0.02Mo.sub.0.02Nb.sub.0.01O.sub.2.

3. The composition of claim 1, wherein the composition is thermally stable up to about 286° C.

4. The composition of claim 1, wherein the composition has a capacity retention of about 98% after 100 charge/discharge cycles.

5. The composition of claim 1, wherein the composition has a capacity retention of about 85% after 1000 charge/discharge cycles.

6. The composition of claim 1, wherein at a low C-rate, the discharge pacity reaches about 210 mhA/g.

7. The composition of claim 1, wherein at a high C-rate, the discharge capacity reaches about 160 mhA/g.

8. A composition used in a cathode for a lithium ion battery, the composition comprising: Li.sub.aMn.sub.bNi.sub.cCo.sub.dTi.sub.eMo.sub.fNb.sub.gTa.sub.hSb.sub.iO.sub.j wherein a ranges from about 1.15 to 1.20, b ranges from about 0.5 to 0.6, c ranges from about 0.1 to 0,15, d ranges from about 0.05 to 0.10, e ranges from about 0.005 to 0.015, f ranges from about 0.005 to 0.015, g ranges from about 0.005 to 0.015, h ranges from about 0.005 to 0.015, i ranges from about 0.005 to 0.015, and j ranges from about 1.9 to 2.2.

9. The composition of claim 8, wherein the composition has a formula Li.sub.1.2Mn.sub.0.54Ni.sub.0.13 Co .sub.0.091Ti.sub.0.0078Mo.sub.0.0078Nb.sub.0.0078Ta.sub.0.0078Sb.sub.0.0078O.sub.2.

10. The composition of claim 8, wherein the composition has a longer life cycle compared to an undoped Li-Mn-rich layered oxide.

11. The composition of claim 8, wherein the composition has a capacity retention of about 95% after 30 charge/discharge cycles.

12. The composition of claim 8, wherein the composition does not undergo voltage fading.

13. The composition of claim 8, wherein t low C-rate, the discharge capacity reaches about 282 mhA/g,

14. The composition of claim 8, wherein at a high C-rate, the discharge capacity reaches about 180 mhA/g.

15. The composition of claim 8, wherein at a C-rate of 5C the composition has a capacity retention that reaches about 210 mhA/g,

16. A method of synthesizing a cathode material for a lithium ion battery, the method comprising; a. preparing a hydroxide precursor powder; b. mixing the hydroxide precursor powder with a lithium salt to prepare the cathode material precursor; and c. calcining the cathode material precursor to form the cathode material.

17. The method of claim 16, wherein the hydroxide precursor powder is prepared by a method comprising: a. dissolving nickel salt, manganese salt, magnesium salt, titanium salt, niobium salt, and molybdenum salt in a solvent to make a hydroxide precursor solution; b. preparing a base solution comprising at least one base dissolved in a solvent; c. mixing the hydroxide precursor solutionwith the base solution to produce the hydroxide precursor powder; d. isolating the hydroxide precursor powder from the solution; and e. drying the hydroxide precursor powder.

18. The method of claim 16, wherein the hydroxide precursor powder is prepared by a method comprising: a. dissolving nickel salt, manganese salt, cobalt salt, titanium salt, niobium salt, molybdenum salt, tantalum salt, and antimony salt in a solvent to make a hydroxide precursor solution; b. preparing a base solution comprising at least one base dissolved in a solvent; c. mixing the hydroxide precursor solution with the base solution to produce the hydroxide precursor powder; d isolating the hydroxide precursor powder from the solution; and e, drying the hydroxide precursor powder.

19. The method of claim 16, wherein the cathode material precursor is calcined at 730° C.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWING(S)

[0015] The patent application or application file contains at least one drawing executed in color. Copies of this patent or patent application publication with color drawing(s) will be provided by the Office upon request and payment of the necessary fee.

[0016] The features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from a consideration of the following detailed description presented in connection with the accompanying drawings in which:

[0017] FIG. 1A shows charge/discharging profiles of high-entropy doped LiNiO.sub.2 material (red) vs the TiMg-doped material (green); It shows the charging curve is smooth indicating there is no obvious two phase transition.

[0018] FIG. 1B shows the cycling performance of the high-entropy doped LiNiO.sub.2 material (blue) vs the TiMg-doped material (magenta). The cycling performance of the high entropy-doped LiNiO.sub.2 is excellent.

[0019] FIG. IC shows the rate performance of he high entropy-doped LiNiO.sub.2 is much better than the TiMg-binary doped material

[0020] FIGS. 2A-2B show the high-entropy doped Li-rich material has high capacity retention at high charge rate (290 mAh/g at 0.2 C and 205 mAh/g at 2C) and there is very little voltage fade as the material undergoes electrochemical cycling.

[0021] FIG. 3 shows that the LiNi.sub.0.8Mn.sub.0.13Ti.sub.0.02Mg.sub.0.02Mo.sub.0.02Nb.sub.0.01O.sub.2cathode particles contain all of the dopants uniformly.

[0022] FIGS. 4A-4B show that the LiNi.sub.0.8Mn.sub.0.13 Ti.sub.0.02Mg.sub.0.02Mo.sub.0.02Nb.sub.0.02O.sub.2 synthesized has layered oxide structure (space group R-3m), the same as LiNO.sub.2 and LiCoO.sub.2.

[0023] FIG. 5 shows the initial charge/discharge profile and coulombic efficiency of NMC-811 and HE-LNMO

[0024] FIGS. 6A-6B show that the LiNi.sub.0.8Mn.sub.0.13Ti.sub.0.02Mg.sub.0.02Mo.sub.0.02 Nb.sub.0.01O.sub.2 (HE-LNMO) has much better capacity retention when charged to high voltages, 4.4V and 4.5V, respectively, compared to the commercial LiNi.sub.0.8Mn.sub.0.1Co.sub.0.1O.sub.2 (NMC-811) material.

[0025] FIG. 6C shows that the LiNi.sub.0.8Mn.sub.0.13Mg.sub.0.02Mo.sub.0.02 Nb.sub.0.01O.sub.2 (HE-LNMO) has a much better life cycle than that of the commercial LiNi.sub.0.8Mn.sub.0.8Co.sub.0.1O.sub.2 (NMC-811) material. The life cycle reaches more than 1000 cycles with a capacity retention of 85% at 1000 cycles.

[0026] FIG. 7 shows that the LiNi.sub.0.8Mn.sub.0.13Ti.sub.0.02 Mg.sub.0.02Mo.sub.0.02Nb.sub.0.01O.sub.2 (HE-LNMO) has extremely good stability in graphite full cells. With a cut-off voltage of 4.3V and 4.2V vs. graphite, the capacity retention is 98.9% and 99.5% after 100 cycles respectively.

[0027] FIGS 8A-8B show that the LiNi.sub.0.8Mn.sub.0.13Ti.sub.0.02Mg.sub.0.02Mo.sub.0.02Nb.sub.0.01O.sub.2(HE-LNMO) has extremely good thermal stability. From DSC (FIG. 8A) and TGA-MS (FIG. 8B) measurements, the HE-LNMO material is about 100° C. more stable than the LiNi.sub.0.6Mn.sub.0.1Co.sub.0.1O.sub.2 (NMC-811) material. The thermal stability of the HE-LNMO material is comparable to LiNi.sub.0.5Mn.sub.0.3Co.sub.0.2O2 (NMC-532). This measurement supports that the high-entropy “cocktail” effect can improve the structural stability of high-Ni content material at highly charged states.

[0028] FIGS. 9A-9C show that the LiNi.sub.0.6Mn.sub.0.13Ti.sub.0.02Mg.sub.0.02Mo.sub.0.02Nb.sub.0.01O.sub.2 (HE-LNMO) also has a zero-strain property, i.e., the material has nearly zero volume change as it is charged to 4.3 V vs Li/Li.sup.+. The a and b lattice parameters are extracted from the XRD data shown in FIG. 9C. The volume expansion is then calculated by calculating the volume of the material unit cell as shown in FIG. 9B. Compared with LiNi.sub.0.8Mn.sub.0.1CO.sub.0.1O.sub.2 (NMC-811), the HE-LNMO material has nearly no volume change up to 4.3 V vs Li/Li.sup.+. This is a special mechanical property that is realized by the high-entropy doping strategy. This property is critically important for improving the life cycle of cathode materials as volume expansion can cause mechanical degradation of the cathode.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0029] For purposes of summarizing the disclosure, certain aspects, advantages, and novel features of the disclosure are described herein. It is to be understood that not necessarily all such advantages may be achieved in accordance with any particular embodiment of the disclosure. Thus, the disclosure may be embodied or carried out in a manner that achieves or optimizes one advantage or group of advantages as taught herein without necessarily achieving other advantages as may be taught or suggested herein.

[0030] Additionally, although embodiments of the disclosure have been described in detail, certain variations and modifications will be apparent to those skilled in the art, including embodiments that do not provide all the features and benefits described herein. It will be understood by those skilled in the art that the present disclosure extends beyond the specifically disclosed embodiments to other alternative or additional embodiments and/or uses and obvious modifications and equivalents thereof. Moreover, while a number of variations have been shown and described in varying detail, other modifications, which are within the scope of the present disclosure, will be readily apparent to those of skill in the art based upon this disclosure. It is also contemplated that various combinations or sub combinations of the specific features and aspects of the embodiments may be made and still fall within the scope of the present disclosure. Accordingly, it should be understood that various features and aspects of the disclosed embodiments can be combined with or substituted for one another in order to form varying modes of the present disclosure. Thus, it is intended that the scope of the present disclosure herein disclosed should not be limited by the particular disclosed embodiments described herein,

[0031] As used herein, the terms “high-entropy doping strategy” or “cocktail doping strategy” may refer to a method that allows a minimum of four impurity elements to be introduced into the host materials. As used herein “host materials” may refer to any layered cathode materials used in lithium-ion batteries, including, but not limited to, lithium nickelate and. Li-manganese-rich nickel-manganese-cobalt oxide.

[0032] As used herein, the term “life cycle” may refer to the number of complete charge/discharge cycles that the battery is able to support before its capacity falls below 80% of the battery's original capacity.

[0033] As used herein, the term “capacity retention” may refer to a measure of the ability of a battery to retain stored energy during an extended open-circuit rest period, In some embodiments, the capacity retention is the remaining capacity after a period of storage of a fully charged battery or battery pack.

[0034] As used herein, the term “thermally stable” may refer to the ability to withstand decomposition at high temperatures in fully charged states.

[0035] As used herein, the term “discharge capacity” may refer to a measure of the rate at which a battery is discharged relative to its maximum capacity and is a key feature that can reflect the health of a battery. It is often expressed as a C-rate in order to normalize against battery capacity, which is often very different between batteries. A C-rate is a measure of the rate at which a battery is discharged relative to its maximum capacity. A 1C rate means that the discharge current will discharge the entire battery in 1hour. A low C-rate may be below about 0.5C. A high C-rate may be greater than or equal to about 1C.

[0036] As used herein, the terms “capacity fading” or “capacity loss ”may refer to a phenomenon observed in rechargeable battery usage where the amount of charge a battery can deliver at the rated voltage decreases with use.

[0037] As used herein, the term “voltage fading” may refer to the decrease in average discharge voltage as the material undergoes electrochemical cycling.

[0038] The present invention features a composition for a positive electrode material that can be used in a lithium ion battery that allows for high energy density, long life cycle and zero reliance on the toxic cobalt.

[0039] The present invention features a composition used in a cathode for a lithium ion battery. In some embodiments, the composition is represented by a formula Li.sub.aNi.sub.bMn.sub.cTi.sub.dMg.sub.eMo.sub.fNb.sub.gO.sub.h. In preferred embodiments, the composition with the formula Li.sub.aNi.sub.bMn.sub.cTi.sub.dMg.sub.eMo.sub.fNb.sub.gO.sub.h comprises ratios of elements in a range of: a from about 1 to 1.03; b from about 0.7 to 0.8; c from about 0.05 to 0.15; d from about 0.001 to 0.025; e from about 0.001 to 0.025; f from about 0.001 to 0.025; g from about 0.001 to 0.025; and h from about 1.9 to 2.1. In some embodiments, the respective proportions of the elements in the compositions may vary by plus or minus 10%. In one embodiment, the composition may comprise LiNi.sub.0.13Mn.sub.0.13Ti.sub.0.02Mg.sub.0.02Mo.sub.0.02Nb.sub.0.01O.sub.2.

[0040] In other embodiments, the cathode material for a Lithium (Li) ion battery with a composition Li.sub.aNi.sub.bMn.sub.cTi.sub.dMg.sub.eMo.sub.fNb.sub.gO.sub.h has a longer life cycle compared to other compositions such as LiNi.sub.0.8Mn.sub.0.16Ti.sub.0.02Mg.sub.0.02O.sub.2and LiNi.sub.0.8Mn.sub.0.1Co.sub.0.1O.sub.2. As a non-limiting example, the composition may go through 1000 charge/discharge cycles before its capacity falls below 80% of its original capacity. In some embodiments, the composition has a capacity retention of about 98% after 100 charge/discharge cycles. In other embodiments, the composition has a capacity retention of about 85% after 1000 charge/discharge cycles.

[0041] In some embodiments, the cathode material for a Lithium (Li) ion battery with a composition Li.sub.aNi.sub.bMn.sub.cTi.sub.dMg.sub.eMo.sub.fNb.sub.gO.sub.h eliminates the toxic, expensive, and single sourced cobalt from the composition. In addition. the composition reduces Ni content, which lowers the cost of the cathode electrode material. Furthermore, there is less change in Ni-metal bond length in the composition, which indicates less strain of the material in the charged state.

[0042] In other embodiments, the cathode material for a Lithium (Li) ion battery with a composition Li.sub.aNi.sub.bMn.sub.cTi.sub.dMg.sub.eMo.sub.fNb.sub.gO.sub.h is more thermally stable than other compositions such as LiNi.sub.0.8Mn.sub.0.16Ti.sub.0.02Mg.sub.0.02O.sub.2. In preferred embodiments, the composition is thermally stable up to about 286°C. In other embodiments, the composition is 100 °C more stable compared to a composition with the formula LiNi.sub.0.8Mn.sub.0.1Co.sub.0.1O.sub.2 (NMC-811).

[0043] In some embodiments, the cathode material for a Lithium (Li) ion battery with a composition Li.sub.aNi.sub.bMn.sub.cTi.sub.dMg.sub.eMo.sub.fNb.sub.gO.sub.h has a higher capacity then other compositions such as LiNi.sub.08Mn.sub.0.16Ti.sub.0.02Mg.sub.0.02. In one embodiment, at a low C-rate, the discharge capacity of the composition reaches about 210 mhA/g. In other embodiments, at a high C-rate, the discharge capacity of the composition reaches about 160 mhA/g. As a non-limiting example, at a C/10 rate, the discharge capacity of the composition ranges from about 200 to 210 mhA/g (2.5 - 4.4V vs Li/Li.sup.+). A low C-rate may be below about 0.5C. A high C-rate may be greater than or equal to about 1C,

[0044] The present invention features a composition used in a cathode for a lithium ion battery. In some embodiments, the composition is represented by a formula Li.sub.aMn.sub.bNi.sub.cCo.sub.dTi.sub.eMo.sub.fNb.sub.gTa.sub.hSb.sub.iO.sub.j In preferred embodiments, the composition with the formula Li.sub.aMn.sub.bNi.sub.cCo.sub.dTi.sub.eMo.sub.fNb.sub.gTa.sub.hSb.sub.iO.sub.j comprises ratios of elements in a range of: a from about 1.15 to 1.2: b from about 0.5 to 0.6; c from about 0.1 to 0.15; d from about 0.05 to 0.1; e from about 0.005 to 0.015; f from about 0.005 to 0.015; g from about 0.005 to 0.015; h from about 0.005 to 0.015; i from about 0.005 to 0.015; and j from about 1.9 to 2.2. In some embodiments, the respective proportions of the elements in the compositions may vary by plus or minus 10%. In one embodiment, the composition comprises Li.sub.1.2Mn.sub.0.54Ni.sub.0.13Co.sub.0.091Ti.sub.0.0075Mo.sub.0.0076Nb.sub.0.0078 Ta.sub.0.0078Sb.sub.0.0078O.sub.2.

[0045] In other embodiments, the composition having the formula Li.sub.aMn.sub.bNi.sub.cCo.sub.dTi.sub.eMo.sub.fNb.sub.gTa.sub.hSb.sub.iO.sub.j has a longer life cycle than the undoped Li-Mn-rich layered oxide. In one embodiment, the composition has a capacity retention of about 95% after 30 charge/discharge cycles. In some embodiments, the composition having the formula Li.sub.aMn.sub.bNi.sub.cCo.sub.dTi.sub.eMo.sub.fNb.sub.gTa.sub.hSb.sub.iO.sub.j does not experience voltage fading.

[0046] in one embodiment, at a low C-rate, the discharge capacity of the composition reaches 282 mhA/g, In other embodiments, at a high C-rate, the discharge capacity of the composition reaches 180 to 210 mhA/g. A low C-rate may be below about 0.5C. A high C-rate may be greater than or equal to about 1C,

[0047] The present invention features a method of doping layered cathode materials in lithium ion batteries by using a “high entropy” doping strategy to introduce more than four impurity elements to the host materials, In one embodiment, the present invention features a method for synthesizing a cathode material for a lithium ion battery. In some embodiments, the method comprises: preparing a hydroxide precursor powder; mixing the hydroxide precursor powder with a lithium salt to prepare the cathode material precursor; and calcining the cathode material precursor to form the cathode material. In some embodiments, the cathode material precursor is calcined at 730°C.

[0048] In other embodiments, the hydroxide precursor powder is prepared by a method comprising: dissolving nickel salt, manganese salt, magnesium salt, titanium salt, niobium salt, and molybdenum salt in a solvent to make a hydroxide precursor solution; preparing a base solution comprising at least one base dissolved in a solvent; mixing the hydroxide precursor solution with the base solution to produce the hydroxide precursor powder; isolating the hydroxide precursor powder from the solution; and drying the hydroxide precursor powder. In some embodiments, the hydroxide precursor powder is prepared by a method comprising; dissolving nickel salt, manganese salt, cobalt salt, titanium salt, niobium salt, molybdenum salt, tantalum salt, and antimony salt in a solvent to make a hydroxide precursor solution; preparing a base solution comprising at least one base dissolved in a solvent; mixing the hydroxide precursor solution with the base solution to produce the hydroxide precursor powder; isolating the hydroxide precursor powder from the solution; and drying the hydroxide precursor powder. Non-limiting examples of metal salts that may be used to prepare the composition include : NiSO.sub.4.Math.6H.sub.2O, MnSO.sub.4.Math.4H.sub.2O, MgSO.sub.4.Math.7H.sub.2O, a TiOSO.sub.4 solution, Nb(HC.sub.2O.sub.4).sub.5, and (NH.sub.4).sub.6Mo.sub.7O.sub.24, and LiOH. However, the metal salts are not limited to the aforementioned examples, and may be any suitable metal salt.

EXAMPLE

[0049] The following is a non-limiting example of the present invention. It is to be understood that said example is not intended to limit the present invention in any way. Equivalents or substitutes are within the scope of the present invention.

[0050] Synthesis of the cathode material

[0051] HE-LNMO is synthesized using a typical co-precipitation method in a solution of water. A hydroxide precursor with a stoichiometric ratio of Ni.sub.0.8Mn.sub.0.13Ti.sub.0.02Mg.sub.0.02Nb.sub.0.01Mo.sub.0.02(OH).sub.2 is synthesized. First, NiSO.sub.4-6H.sub.2O (99.8%, Fisher), MnSO.sub.4 4H.sub.2O (99%, Fisher), MgSO.sub.4-7H.sub.2O (98% ACROS), TiOSO.sub.4 solution (Sigma-Aldrich), Nb(HC.sub.2O.sub.4).sub.5 (Alfa-Aesar), and (NH.sub.4).sub.6Mo.sub.7O.sub.24(99.98%, Sigma-Aldrich) are dissolved in pure water with a total transition metal (TM) concentration of 1M. The TM solution is mixed uniformly using magnetic stirring for 12h and stored in an Ar-filled bottle.

[0052] A base solution with 2M NaOH and 1.67M NH.sub.4OH is mixed and prepared before the reaction. A portion (30mL) of the base solution is used as a starting solution. The pH of the starting solution is adjusted to 11.0 via diluted sulfuric acid, and the reaction is started by injecting both TM solution and base solution simultaneously with the flow around 4mL/min. The product is synthesized by stirring the solution at pH =11.0±0.2, 60°C, and under Ar protection. The laurel-green precipitate is collected via vacuum filtration and washed with pure water to remove the residual ions, and then dried in a vacuum oven at 110° C. Then, the dried TM hydroxide precursor powder is mixed thoroughly with LiOH powder with 5% excess Li as compensation at high temperature. The HE-LNMO precursor is calcined in a tube furnace at 730° C. for 12h under an oxygen flow of 0.5L/min,

[0053] Electrochemical test

[0054] The electrochemical performances were tested in a CR-2032 coin cell. First, the cathode slurry is prepared by uniformly mixing the active material, super P carbon, and 5% polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) in N-methyl-1,2-pyrrolidone (NMP) at a mass ratio of 8:1:1. Second, the well-mixed slurry is coated on Al foil and dried in a vacuum oven overnight at 105° C. The electrode is cut into disks with a diameter of 12mm, and the mass loading of active material is 2 - 3mg/cm.sup.2. Finally, the coin cell is assembled in an Ar glovebox using a Li chip (D=16.7mm) as a counter electrode and Celgard-2025 as the separator. The electrolyte is 1M LiPF.sub.6 dissolved in EC: EMC=3:7 solvent with 2 wt% vinylene carbonate (VC) as an additive. In the full cell test, the counter electrode is replaced by commercial graphite coated on copper foil. The electrochemical performance is conducted on a NEWARE BTS-4000 battery test system at room temperature (25° C.), The test voltage is 2.5V - 4.4V, and the current rate is 0.1C to 2C. GITT is tested using a typical step profile at 0.1C with a 20 min pulse current and 5 min rest. CV and EIS tests are conducted on a PINE workstation. CV is tested from 2.5V- 4.5V at 0.1mVis scanning speed.

[0055] TEM experiments

[0056] The (S)TEM experiments were performed on a transmission electron microscope with a field emission source operated at 200 KeV. The atomic-resolution ADF imaging was performed in high-angle annular dark-field scanning transmission electron microscopy (HAADF-STEM) mode, Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analysis was performed with Super-X EDS detectors integrated into the TEM. The in-situ delithiation experiments were conducted with a Nanofactory STM-TEM holder,

[0057] X-ray techniques

[0058] The hard X-ray absorption spectroscopy of transition metal ions are performed on 7-BM at National Synchrotron Light Source II (NSLS II) Brookhaven National Laboratory. The corresponding XAS data is analyzed by Athena software and the WT-EXAFS is analyzed using HAMA code developed by Harald Funke and Marina Chukalina.

[0059] The soft X-ray absorption including TEY and FY mode is performed at beamline 10-1 at Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource (SSRL), and the energy shift is calibrated by the transition metal foil. The in-situ heating and charging/discharging XRD are performed on beamline 11-ID-C at the Advanced Photon Source (APS). The beamline is optimized for high-energy x-ray diffraction at 105.7keV. For the in-situ heating, the charged electrode including a current collector (cut off at 4.3V) is fixed on a heating holder. The beam passes through the electrode and the diffraction pattern is recorded on the detector. All the XRD data are calibrated and analyzed by GSAS-II software. TXM imaging is conducted at beamline 18-ID FXI at NSLS II, which offers advanced capabilities for studying the morphology and oxidation states of dynamic systems in 2-D and 3-D with 30 nm resolution.

[0060] DSC/TGA test

[0061] All the DSCITGA samples are charged to 4.4V and heated with 10° C/min speed. For the DSC test, TA instrument DSC Q2000 equipped with an air-fin cooler is applied, providing temperature measurements of materials phase transitions. NETZSCH STA 449 F3 Jupiter is applied for the TGA-MS test, enabling the measurement of temperature and oxygen loss during phase transformation.

[0062] Results

[0063] The HE-LNMO cathode with a nominal composition of LiNi.sub.0.8Mn.sub.0.13Nb.sub.0.01Mo.sub.0.02Ti.sub.0.02Mg.sub.0.02O.sub.2 is prepared by a co-precipitation method. The structure and chemistry of the as-prepared HE-LNMO were comprehensively investigated by multimodal characterization including transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques.

[0064] FIG. 4A shows a representative atomic-resolution high-angle annula dark-field (HAADF-STEM) image of a HE-LNMO primary particle along the [100]zone axis. The HAADF-STEM results show that the pristine HE-LINO has a well-defined layered structure. In contrast to the well-ordered lattice in the bulk, a slight Li/Ni cation mixing is observed at the particle surface, which is similar to that previously reported in other high-Ni cathode materials. Consistent with the TEM results. synchrotron-based powder XRD patterns and Rietveld refinement analyses (FIG. 4B) confirm that HE-LNMO has a layered crystal structure (space group of R-3m) with the lattice parameters of a =b =2.879 Å, and c =14.23 Å, which is close to that of other high-Ni cathodes.

[0065] Energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) analysis mapping was performed to determine the elemental distributions in HELNMO. The results (FIG. 3) show that all the transition metals have a nearly homogenous distribution in the particle, Quantification EDS analysis showed that the atomic ratios of the clopants are very close to the designed composition of LiNi.sub.0.8Mn.sub.0.13 Nb.sub.0.01,Mo,.sub.0.02Ti.sub.0.02Mg.sub.0.02O.sub.2. In addition, it is worth noting that the contents of Ti, Mo, and Nb dopants in the near-surface region (1-2 nm in thickness) are almost double that of the particle interior,

[0066] Electrochemical tests were performed to evaluate the performance of the HE-LNMO cathode. As a comparison, commercial NMC-811 cathode was also tested by using identical parameters. The charge/discharge profiles (2.5 V to 4.4 V vs. Li/Li.sup.+, FIG. 5) showed that HE-LNMO delivers an initial discharge capacity of 205.5 mAh/g which is comparable to that of the commercial NMC-811 (208.2 mAh/g); in the meantime, the first-cycle Coulombic efficiency (CE) of HE-LNMO reached 90%, significantly improved compared with the 82% of NMC-811. Furthermore, HE-LNMO achieved a specific energy of 789 Wh/kg at 0.1C. It is worth noting that NMC-811 showed a characteristic charge plateau at 4.25 V caused by the H2-H3 phase transformation, which is generally considered as the fingerprint of irreversible structural damage and oxygen release in high-Ni NMC cathodes. In contrast, the detrimental H2-H3 phase transformation in HE-LNMO was significantly suppressed as indicated by the flattened plateau at the same voltage.

[0067] The suppressed phase transformation was also validated by cyclic voltammetry experiments. For NMC-811, three separate redox peaks, correlated with H1-M, M-H2, and H2-H3 phase transformations, respectively, were identified during lithiation and delithiation. For HE-LNMO, the M-H2 redox peak was considerably flattened and, in the meantime, the H2-H3 redox peak shifted towards higher potential by 77 mV, suggesting the detrimental phase transformation is ‘delayed’ in HE-LNMO. Moreover, the polarization difference of reversible H1-M phase transition of HE-LNMO was smaller than that of NMC-811,indicating the more favorable reversibility and Li.sup.+migration. A galvanostatic intermittent titration technique (GITT) experiment confirmed the enhanced Li.sup.+diffusion dynamics. NMC-811 and HE-LNMO with the same specific loading were tested at the same pause current/time. The slightly higher diffusion constants showed that the Li.sup.+diffusion is facilitated in HE-LNMO. This is also consistent with the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) results obtained in which HE-LNMO showed lower impedance than that of NMC-811.

[0068] FIGS. 6A-6B show the long-term cycling performances of HE-LNMO in both half-cells and full-cells. HE-LNMO showed remarkable capacity retention at different cut-off voltages, for example, 98.5% capacity retention after 100 cycles at 2.5-4.4V, and 98% capacity retention after 50 cycles at 2.8-4.5V. Even after 1000 cycles at 2.5-4.3V, 85% capacity was retained in half-cells (FIG. 6C), demonstrating an excellent cycling performance compared with commercial NMC-811. In sharp contrast, NMC-811 only showed 87.1% retention after 100 cycles at 2.5-4.4V, and 85.8% retention after 50cycles at 2.8-4.5V. Furthermore, in full-cell electrochemical tests, HE-LNMO also showed excellent cycling performance at different cut-off voltages (FIG. 7), e.g., 99.5% retention at 2.5-4.2V and 98.9% at 2.5-4.3V after 100 cycles, comparable with the state-of-the-art high-Ni cathode.

[0069] Comprehensive structural characterizations were performed to understand the rationale behind the superior cycling stability of HE-LNMO. In the X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) of Ni in HE-LNMO and NMC-811 after 100.sup.th cycles, it wa seen that the Ni-K edge of the cycled HE-LNMO nearly overlapped with that of the pristine sample; in contrast, the Ni-K edge in cycled NMC-811 evidently shifted to higher energy compared with its pristine counterpart. This suggested HE-LNMO had better reversibility than NMC-811.Furthermore, the Fourier transformed extended X-ray absorption fine structures (FT-EXAFS) of the Ni-K edge was employed to investigate the TM-O bonds in both cathodes. The results showed that both Ni-O and Ni-TM coordination distances in NMC-811 were noticeably shortened after long cycling, indicating the lattice shrinkage and lithium vacancies generated during cycling. However, these interatomic peak shifts were almost negligible in cycled HE-LNMO, implying the highly stable local coordinate environment.

[0070] In addition to the Ni-K edge, the stability of doping elements Mn Ti, Nb, and Mo were also investigated using XANES. The results showed that Ni, Mn, and Ti edges in 100.sup.th cycled HE-LNMO were identically overlapped with the pristine sample. For Nb and Mo, a slight edge shift towards low energy was observed after cycling, indicating that the oxygen vacancies formed during cycling intended to be “trapped” around these high-valence doping elements which led to the reduced oxygen loss around Ni.

[0071] Since the coordination change was closely related to the oxygen-release in the high-Ni cathode, wavelet-transformed EXAFS was applied to probe the Ni-O coordination. The Ni-O bonding in NMC-811 was extended along the high-k direction compared with HE-LNMO, suggesting more oxygen-related defects were formed in NMC-811. Meanwhile, the soft X-ray absorption spectrum of the Ni-L3 edge was applied to study the surface oxygen loss in HE-LNMO and NMC-811. Compared with NMC-811,HE-LNMO showed higher proportion in TEY mode, and lower Ni.sup.3+/Ni.sup.2+ratio difference between TFY mode and TEY mode. The results suggested that HE-LNMO had better charge/discharge homogeneity, and less surface oxygen loss compared with NMC-811, The results of the SAES of the pristine and 500.sup.th-cycled HE-LNMO along the [100 ]zone axis indicated that HE-LNMO maintained a perfect O3 structure with a small amount of cation mixing, which was similar to that in the pristine particles. The O1 stacking-faults (SFs) which widely exist in high-Ni cathodes were not evidently observed in the 500.sup.th-cycled HE-LNMO particles. XRD patterns and lattice refinement showed that after 100.sup.th cycles, both a and c of HE-LNMO show much lower strain (-0.24% and 0.36% respectively) compared with that of NMC-811 (-1.2% and 0.49%, respectively). EDS mapping analysis of the 1.sup.st cycled and long-cycled HE-LNMO showed similar compositional distributions as that of the pristine particles, indicating the superior chemical stability of HE-LNMO.

[0072] Synchrotron-based in-situ and ex-situ XRD was applied to quantify the lattice parameters change during lithiation/delithiation. The lattice parameters (FIGS. 9A-9B) and volume variation at different cut-off voltages during the first delithiation were calculated based on the refinement of both the in-situ and ex-situ XRD data (FIG. 9C). The results showed that for HE-LNMO, the maximum changes of a and c axes were as low as 0.5% and 0.9%, respectively, both of which are less than 1%. While, for NMC-811, the corresponding values were 1.9% and 2.1%, respectively, which are nearly two to four times larger than that of HE-LNMO. Furthermore, the maximum volume changes of HE-LNMO and NMC-811 were ˜0.3% and ˜2.7% (FIG. 9B). This indicates that the volume change of the HE-LNMO (˜0.3%), which is nearly an order of magnitude smaller than that of the NMC-811 (˜2.7%), reached beyond the ‘zero strain’ state (volume change <1%),

[0073] A remarkable trade-off between the capacity and stability (strain) of cathodes with different Ni content is observed. Although high-Ni content cathodes enable higher capacities, it inevitably results in exacerbated intrinsic volume strain of the cathodes, ultimately leading to poor stability and severe safety problems. In sharp contrast to conventional cathodes, the HE-LNMO cathode of the present invention, by realizing high capacity and zero-strain simultaneously, breaks the ‘capacity-stability ’trade-off. To understand the atomic-scale mechanisms behind the improved stability of HE-LNMO, in-situ delithiation experiments in TEM were performed on HE-LNMO primary particles in comparison with the parental phase of high-Ni cathodes—LiNiO.sub.2 (LNO), which is supposed to have large volume change during delithiation.

[0074] Atomic-resolution images and corresponding strain analyses of in-situ delithiated HE-LNMO and LNO primary particles were collected. HE-LNMO remained nearly defect-free and strain-free during delithiation, while in contrast, large amounts of dislocations were formed in delithiated LNO. The suppression of defect generation significantly reduced the local strain concentration inside primary particles during operation and thereby validated the robust structural stability of the zero-strain HE-LNMO cathode. Furthermore, the stability of HE-LNMO was evaluated by TXM tomography at the secondary-particle level. After cycling, substantial intergranular cracks formed inside the NMC-811 cathode, while in contrast, no obvious cracks were observed in the HE-LNMO cathode. High-resolution SEM cross-section imaging was further performed on both cathodes, and the results were in good agreement with those obtained by the TXM tomography.

[0075] To evaluate the thermal stability of HE-LNMO in comparison to Nl C-811, in-situ heating techniques, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and mass spectroscopy (MS) were employed to monitor the degradation of the delithiated particles (cut-off at 4.3V) under thermal abuse conditions. In-situ heating experiments in TEM showed that severe nano-cracks were generated in NMC-811 primary particles after being heated to 350° C., whereas only tiny voids were observed in HE-LNMO at the same heating condition. Moreover, EDS analysis showed that the dopant distributions in the HE-LNMO after thermal abuse remained unchanged compared with that of the pristine particles, indicating the outstanding chemical stability of HE-LNMO.

[0076] In-situ heating XRD was further employed to track the phase transformation pathway of the delithiated HE-LNMO under thermal abuse conditions (temperature target of 45 ° C. with a heating rate of 1 ° Cimin). In contrast to NMC-811 whose layered to spinel transformation temperature is about 155° C., HE-LNMO had a superb thermal tolerance with a layered to spinel transformation temperature of about 230° C. A significant increase of nearly 80° C. makes the thermal stability of HE-LNMO comparable to the ultra-stable NMC-532, which has a layered to spinel transformation of 235°C and a much lower Ni content. FIG. 8A shows the DSC profiles of a series of Ni-rich cathodes with different Ni contents. With an increase of the Ni content (from NMC-532 to NMC-811), the thermal stability significantly decreases, which is consistent with the trend that the phase transition temperature decreases with increased Ni content. Exceptionally, for the HE-LNMO which has exactly the same Ni-content (80%) as that in NMC-811, it delivered a remarkable maximum heat flow at 286° C., which is close to the maximum heat flow of NMC-532 (292° C.) and is considerably higher than that of NMC-811 (230° C.). Consistent with the DSC results and the in-situ heating XRD, TGA-MS results (FIG. 8B) further confirm the superior thermal stability of HE-LNMO over NMC-811, whereby the maximum oxygen release temperature of HE-LNMO is delayed by about 100° C. compared to NMC-811.

[0077] Conclusion

[0078] High-entropy materials are an emerging class of novel materials composed of a large number of components. Through the combination of multiple principal elements, the configurational entropy can be maximized and robust properties can be achieved. Stimulated by the emerging concept of entropy stabilization in metallic alloys, the strategy was rapidly extended to oxide systems for energy storage. However, due to the fact that high-Ni content provides the only route for high-energy-density layered oxide cathodes, the conventional near-equimolar strategy becomes not feasible. Yet, inspired by the idea of conventional high-entropy stabilization strategies, a proof of concept was demonstrated that showed compositionally complex doping is capable to stabilize high-Ni layered oxides through accommodating the volumetric and structural changes of the host O3 lattice during repeated Li.sup.+intercalation/deintercalation, without sacrificing their capacities. The significantly enhanced structural stability and life cycle can be attributed to the following aspects: (1) mitigated surface oxygen loss due to the pinning effects of the hierarchically and randomly distributed dopants; (2) reduced lattice expansion/contraction and defects generation through strain accommodation by different chemical environments; (3) suppressed cation mixing through solute-drag effects of the multi-component dopants in TM layers. The intrinsically enhanced stability through high-entropy doping ensures the superior stability of HE-LNMO cathode in both the long-term cycling conditions and thermal abuse conditions.

[0079] The large volume change which ubiquitously exists in high-Ni cathode materials may cause both structural degradations and mechanical failures of the cathodes. For example, the large lattice contraction along the c axis unavoidably results in the detrimental O1 stacking faults/phase and thereby the deactivation of high-Ni cathode due to the high energy barrier for Li.sup.+to intercalate back into the lattice. On the other hand, local strain concentration originating from heterogeneous volume change could directly cause mechanical failure of the cathodes via the formation of multiscale cracks (including both intergranular cracking and intragranular cracking). A zero-strain high-Ni cathode for LIBs is prepared through a novel high-entropy doping strategy. By pushing the volume change of the high-Ni cathodes far below 1%, the trade-off between the capacity and stability of high-Ni cathodes is broken and their structural and mechanical stabilities simultaneously improve,. This opens the possibility of optimizing current high-Ni cathodes through controlled combinations of multiple dopants,

[0080] In conclusion, a high-entropy doping strategy is proposed to fabricate a zero-strain high-Ni and Co-free layered cathode with superior structural/mechanical stability and long life cycle. Through the synergistic effects of the compositionally complex dopants, the lattice strain of the high-Ni cathode during operation is pushed down to an unprecedented 0.3%, far below the critical value of zero-strain (1%). The significantly reduced lattice strain leads to an ultra-stable lattice structure that can effectively resist chemomechanical cracking as well as lattice defects during long-term cycling. Moreover, due to the pinning effects of randomly distributed dopants, the oxygen loss and detrimental phase transformation are considerably mitigated and leads to superior structural stability in both harsh long-cycle chemomechanical conditions and thermal abuse conditions.

[0081] As used herein, the term “about” refers to plus or minus 10% of the referenced number.

[0082] Although there has been shown and described the preferred embodiment of the present invention, it will be madily apparent to those skilled in the art that modifications may be made thereto which do not exceed the scope of the appended claims. Therefore, the scope of the invention is only to be limited by the following claims. In some embodiments, the figures presented in this patent application are drawn to scale, including the angles, ratios of dimensions, etc. In some embodiments, the figures are representative only and the claims are not limited by the dimensions of the figures. In some embodiments, descriptions of the inventions described herein using the phrase “comprising” includes embodiments that could be described as “consisting essentially of”or “consisting of”, and as such the written description requirement for claiming one or more embodiments of the present invention using the phrase “consisting essentially of” or “consisting of ”is met.