SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR CALIBRATING DRY ELECTRODE BIOELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE SENSING

Abstract

Described herein are systems and methods for calibrating dry electrode bioelectrical impedance measurements. These method and apparatuses may be used for sensing bioelectrical impedance for ambulatory and or long-term measurements. Calibration of bioelectrical impedance sensing may be performed by using measurements taken during a shorted configuration of the apparatus, in which the same current is applied to both the source and sink stimulation electrodes, to modify measurements taken in a forward and/or reverse configuration in which current is applied to either the source and/or sink.

Claims

1.-6. (canceled)

7. A method performed by a bioelectric impedance measurement system that includes: a plurality of dry electrodes including source and sink electrodes and first and second sense electrodes that are attachable to a skin of a subject, a signal generator configured to generate currents, and a current sense resistor, the method comprising: (a) in a normal mode, controlling the signal generator to generate a current, applying the generated current from the source electrode to the sink electrode, sensing voltages at the first and second sense electrodes, and measuring a current across the current sense resistor; (b) automatically switching from the normal mode to a shorted mode within a predefined time after step (a), controlling the signal generator to generate the current, applying the generated current to both the source and sink electrodes, and sensing voltages at the first and second sense electrodes; (c) computing a calibrated bioelectrical impedance according to changes in an interface characteristic between the skin and the dry electrodes based at least in part on: a difference of the voltages between the first and second sense electrodes in each of the normal and shorted modes, a ratio of the voltages at one of the first and second sense electrodes between the normal and shorted modes, and the measured current across the current sense resistor; and (d) generating a biometric indicative of a body composition of the subject based on the computed calibrated bioelectrical impedance.

8. The method according to claim 7, wherein the biometric includes at least one of an amount of water, a fat-free body mass, and a body fat amount of the subject.

9. The method according to claim 7, wherein the predefined time is within 1 ms to 1 s.

10. The method according to claim 7, wherein step (b) further includes using a multiplexer to automatically switch from the normal mode to the shorted mode.

11. The method according to claim 7, further comprising: (e) in a reverse mode, controlling the signal generator to generate the current, applying the generated current from the sink electrode to the source electrode, sensing voltages at the first and second sense electrodes, and measuring the current across the current sense resistor, and (f) computing a first bioelectrical impedance based on the voltages in the normal and shorted modes, computing a second bioelectrical impedance based on the voltages in the reverse and shorted modes, and computing a calibrated bioelectrical impedance based on the first and second bioelectrical impedances.

12. The method according to claim 7, wherein step (c) includes using a predetermined calibration function for compensating skin-electrode interface impedance mismatch to compute the calibrated bioelectrical impedance.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0025] The novel features of the invention are set forth with particularity in the claims that follow. A better understanding of the features and advantages of the present invention will be obtained by reference to the following detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments, in which the principles of the invention are utilized, and the accompanying drawings of which:

[0026] FIG. 1 is a side view of one example of an apparatus (e.g., a bioelectric measurement system) worn on a subject's wrist.

[0027] FIG. 2 is cross section of the exemplary bioelectric measurement system of FIG. 1 taken along line A-A.

[0028] FIG. 3 is a block diagram of one example of a bioelectric measurement system of such as the one shown in FIG. 2.

[0029] FIG. 4 is a portion of the block diagram of FIG. 3 schematically illustrating a forward signal path through the sense electrodes.

[0030] FIG. 5 is a portion of the block diagram of FIG. 3 schematically illustrating a reverse signal path through the sense electrodes.

[0031] FIG. 6 is a portion of the block diagram of FIG. 3 schematically illustrating a shorted signal path through the sense electrodes.

[0032] FIG. 7 is an example of one variation of a circuit diagram corresponding to a bioelectric measurement apparatus illustrating a forward signal path as illustrated in FIG. 4 (and, similarly, the reverse signal path of FIG. 5).

[0033] FIG. 8 is an example of one variation of a circuit diagram corresponding to a bioelectric measurement apparatus illustrating a shorted signal path as illustrated in FIG. 6.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0034] In general, described herein are bioelectric measurement methods and apparatuses that may be used to accurately determine a bioelectric property such as bioelectric impedance (bioimpedance) when using dry electrodes. These methods and apparatuses may be configured to apply both a forward configuration (and/or reverse configuration) current between a source and sink electrodes (stimulation electrodes) and a shorted current concurrently to both the source and sink electrodes, and to detect and store the voltage at each of a pair of sense electrodes in the forward (and/or reverse) configuration and the shorted configuration, as well as the current (and/or in some variations, voltage) of a current sensing resistor in the forward (and/or reverse configuration). The method or apparatus may use electrical measurements of the forward (and/or reverse) configuration as well as the shorted configuration in order to calibrate and provide an accurate bioelectrical impedance measurement.

[0035] Thus any of the apparatuses described herein may include at least one pair of source and sink electrodes, which may form a pair of stimulation electrodes, and at least one pair of sense electrodes, and a current sense resistor. The source, sink and sense electrodes may all be dry electrodes. The apparatus may also include a signal generator for generating the current configured to be applied to either or both the source and sink electrodes of the stimulation electrodes. The signal generator may be configured to apply a current having a frequency or range of frequencies. For example, the current may be an alternating current (AC), e.g. from a low frequency (e.g. 1 KHz) to a high frequency (e.g. 1 MHz or more) and the measured electrical values (e.g., voltage or currents during forward, reverse or shorted configurations) can be sampled for at various frequencies. By varying the frequency of the AC current, the relationship between impedance and frequency can be measured.

[0036] Any of the apparatuses described herein may also or alternatively include a signal processor configured to process any of the applied or sensed voltages and/or currents. The signal processor may be configured to sample and/or store signals from any of the electrodes and/or the current sense resistor. In some variations the signal processor may be configured to smooth, average, convert, or otherwise process the signals. The signal processor may receive input from and/or may be integrated with, a controller. The signal processor may receive input from and/or may be integrated with the signal generator. Similarly, the signal generator may receive input from and/or be integrated with the controller.

[0037] Any of the apparatuses described herein may be configured to switch between the shorted configuration, the forward configuration and/or the reverse configuration. Thus, the apparatus may include any combination of hardware, firmware and/or software to switch between these modes, and to receive, store and determine a calibrated tissue impedance from the sense electrode voltages and the current through the current sense resistor (or equivalent) during these different modes, as will be described in greater detail below. In some variations, a controller may be configured to switch the apparatus between these modes, receive and process the sensed voltages and/or current(s) and output the calibrated tissue impedance.

[0038] The apparatuses described herein may generally be configured to be worn on a subject's skin. For example, the apparatus may be configured to be worn on the subject's arm, wrist, hand, shoulder, chest, neck, waist, torso, abdomen, head, leg ankle, foot, etc. In particular, the methods and apparatuses described herein may be configured to be used with a wrist-worn device including a pair of sense electrodes and a pair of stimulation electrodes (e.g., source and sink electrodes) mounted on a rigid or flexible frame (e.g., strap, wristband, etc.) that is configured to secure these dry electrodes against the subject's skin.

[0039] FIGS. 1 and 2 illustrate one example of a bioelectric measurement system 1 configured to be worn on a subject's wrist 2. The subject's wrist 2 is covered with skin 2S. The bioelectric measurement system 1 includes internal electronics 3 which are connected to electrodes 4, 5, 6 and 7 which contact the skin 2S. First and third electrodes 4 and 6 are stimulation electrodes (e.g., source 4 and sink 6 in the forward configuration and sink 4 and source 6 in the reverse configuration) and second and fourth electrodes 5 and 7 are sense electrodes. The electrodes may all be dry contact electrodes and may require no skin preparation, gel or other material to optimize the skin-electrode impedance. In some variations the sense electrodes are between the stimulation electrodes. In some variations, multiple source and/or sense electrodes are included; the methods and apparatuses described herein may be used with multiple pairs (or pair combinations) of source and sense electrodes.

[0040] Characteristics of the interface between the subject's skin 2S and electrodes 4, 5, 6 and 7, such as impedance and capacitance, may typically change over time and as the subject moves. The changes in the skin-electrode interface characteristics may be accurately characterized and then compensated for during bioelectric data collection using the methods and apparatuses described herein.

[0041] FIG. 3 shows one example of an apparatus for determining a calibrated bioelectrical impedance of a subject's tissue (e.g., skin tissue). This schematic may apply to an apparatus such as the wrist-worn apparatus shown in FIGS. 1 and 2. As shown in FIG. 3, the internal electronics may include a controller 10, signal generator 11, signal processing electronics 12, optional multiplexer 13 and power source 14. As mentioned above, in some variations any of these components may be combined/integrated together. Characterization of the skin-electrode interface may be accomplished by routing a signal (e.g., a test signal) from the signal generator 11 through the optional multiplexer 13 or other control and/or switching circuitry and through the stimulation electrodes 4 and 6 in a forward configuration or a shorted configuration (and in some variations, in a reverse configuration) as described and illustrated below in FIGS. 4-6.

[0042] For example, FIG. 4 illustrates one example of the operation of an exemplary apparatus such as the one shown schematically in FIG. 3 in a forward configuration. In this example, in the forward configuration the controller may be configured to operate the apparatus so that the signal 15 from the signal generator 11 is passed and/or processed by one or more elements of the signal processor 12 and routed (e.g., by multiplexer 13) in a first or forward direction between the source 4 and sink 6 electrodes of the apparatus. As the current (the signal) is applied between the source and sink electrodes, the apparatus may detect signals from the sense electrodes 5, 7. In this example, data signals 16A and 16B may be processed and interpreted by signal processor 12 and controller 10. These data signals may correspond to voltage(s) at the sense electrodes. Concurrently, a signal (e.g., voltage and/or current) from the current sense resistor (not shown in FIG. 4) may be recorded during the application of the forward signal and the resulting forward or first characteristic data 17 may be stored by the controller 10 as shown in FIG. 3.

[0043] Following operation of the apparatus in the forward configuration for one or more set of samples (e.g., recording at one or more frequencies, etc.) the apparatus may be automatically (e.g., by action of the controller) switched to operate in the shorted configuration. Alternatively or additionally, the apparatus may be configured to switch to operate in the reverse configuration, in which the source and sink electrodes may be reversed (e.g., the source may operate as the sink and the sink as the source). This is illustrated in FIG. 5.

[0044] FIG. 5 illustrates one example of the operation of an exemplary apparatus such as the one shown schematically in FIG. 3 in a reverse configuration. In FIG. 5, a signal 19 from the signal generator 11 (which may be the same or different from the signal(s) applied in the forward configuration) may be processed by one or more elements of the signal processor 12 and routed (e.g., by multiplexer 13) in a second or reverse direction, between the sink 6 and source 4 electrodes. The sense electrodes 5, 7 may be used to record data signals 20A and 20B (e.g., voltages) arising from the applied reverse current, and these sense data signals may be processed and interpreted by signal processor 12 and controller 10, along with the sensed current and/or voltage from the current sense resistor (not shown), and the resulting reverse or second characteristic data 21 may be stored by the controller 10 as shown in FIG. 3.

[0045] As mentioned above, immediately following one or more operations of the apparatus in the forward and/or reverse configuration or modes, the apparatus may be automatically (e.g., by action of the controller) switched to operate in the shorted configuration, in which current is sent to both the source and sink electrodes simultaneously. In the shorted configuration (or shorted mode) the same current may be applied to both the source and sink electrodes. The applied current may be the same or approximately the same as applied during the forward and/or reverse configuration. In some variations the current may be different (e.g., the current applied to both electrodes when operating in the shorted configuration may be less than during operation in the forward and/or reverse configuration.

[0046] FIG. 6 illustrates the operation of the exemplary apparatus described above in the shorted configuration/mode. In FIG. 6, parallel signals 24 (e.g., current) from the signal generator 11 may be processed by one or more elements of the signal processor 12 and routed (e.g., by multiplexer 13) in a third, parallel or shorted direction so that the same signal (current) is applied to both the source 4 and sink 6, as shown. The signal sensed by the sense electrodes arising from the applied signal may be received as data signals 25A and 25B and processed and/or interpreted by signal processor 12 and controller 10. The received signals (e.g., voltage at the sense electrodes) during the shorted operation may correspond to shorted or third characteristic data 26 and may be stored by the controller 10 as shown in FIG. 3.

[0047] In some variations, the controller 10 use the forward data 17 and shorted data 26 (and/or in some embodiments, the reverse data 21 and shorted data 26) to characterize the interface 27 between electrodes 4, 5, 6 and 7 and skin 2A and to determine an accurate estimation of the bioelectric signals (e.g., bioelectric impedance) of the tissue.

[0048] As will be described in further detail below, the use of the shorted configuration may allow the bioelectric impedance to be calibrated even when using dry electrodes. Note that although the examples described herein work particularly well for dry electrodes, these methods and apparatuses may also be applied to wet (e.g., hydrogel) electrodes used for bioelectric impedance.

[0049] The impedance mismatch between the subject's tissue 2S and the electrodes (e.g., between S2 and 7 and between S2 and 5) can be determined during calibration using the methods and apparatuses described herein, and may be used to adjust the interpretation of bioelectric signals from the electrodes 4, 5, 6 and 7. The bioelectric measurement system 1 measures a set of calibration measurements. For example, the system calibration measurements may include the differential voltage between the sense electrodes 5 and 7, the total current through the electrodes (e.g., the current through the current sense resistor), and the voltage at the input of one of the sense electrodes during the forward (or reverse) and shorted configurations. Any suitable set of measurements may be used to calibrate the electrode/skin interface impedance.

[0050] For example, as described above, a first set of measurements may be made with the current applied in either the forward or the reverse direction to provide forward data 17, or reverse data 21. Shorted data 26 may be collected as discussed above (e.g., immediately after, before or intermittently with collecting the data from the forward and/or reverse configuration), and the first set of data, e.g., forward data 17, and the shorted data 26 may be combined to calculate a first impedance of subject's tissue 2 that is calibrated by the use of the shorted data.

[0051] In some variations, the measurement and calculation process may be repeated using the previously unused current direction (e.g., reverse data 21) and the corresponding shorted data 26. The reverse data 21 and the shorted data 26 may be combined to calculate a second impedance of subject's tissue 2. The first impedance data may then be combined with the second impedance data, e.g., by averaging the two together, by weighting the forward with the reverse, etc., which may improve the accuracy of the resulting bioelectric impedance measurements.

[0052] Specifically, the bioelectric impedance may be calibrated by the differential voltage at the sense electrodes and a ratio of the voltage at the input to one of the sense electrodes during both the forward and shorted configurations.

[0053] For example, FIGS. 7 and 8 show schematic diagrams of the operation of an apparatus such as that shown in FIGS. 3-6, above during a normal, forward, configuration and during a shorted configuration, respectively. In FIGS. 7-8, the current source/sink electrodes 4 and 6 have impedance Z1 and Z3 respectively. The voltage sense electrodes 5 and 7 have impedance Z4 and Z5 respectively. The subject's tissue 2 has impedance Z2. Z6 is the current sense resistor. Z8 and Z9 refer to the input impedance to the buffer amplifiers 8 and 9 respectively. As mentioned above, FIG. 7 illustrates a system in normal operation (e.g., forward configuration or mode) and FIG. 8 illustrates the system operating in a shorted configuration or mode, with the current simultaneously applied to both the source electrode 4 sink electrode 6.

[0054] In all of the apparatuses described herein, the bioelectric measurement apparatus (e.g., system) has a current source and sink electrode, and at least two sense electrodes. These apparatuses all also have the capability of switching between the forward (or normal) configuration and the shorted configuration, and in some variations also the reverse configuration. Thus, these apparatuses may be configured to direct current in a forward direction (and/or reverse direction) as well as directing current into both source and sink electrodes simultaneously, enabling the measurement of leakage currents i8 and i9, shown in FIGS. 7 and 8, through the sense electrodes (e.g., in FIGS. 4-6, sense electrodes 5 and 7).

[0055] Thus, a bioelectric measurement system 1 may be configured to measure the differential voltage multiplied by the gain of the amplifier at the sense electrodes: (G(V.sub.4-V.sub.5))=. In the normal (forward) configuration, the differential voltage at the sense electrode multiplied by the gain may be indicated by the subscript N. In the shorted configuration, the differential voltage at the sense electrode multiplied by the gain may be indicated by the subscript B. Thus:

[00001]${}_N=G\left(V_{4,N}-V_{5,N}\right)$${}_B=G\left(V_{4,B}-V_{5,B}\right)$

[0056] The differential voltage across the current sense resistor is (G(V.sub.6-V.sub.7))=. So, for the forward configurations this may be:

[00002]${}_N=G\left(V6-V7\right)=I_{6,N}{Z}_{6}G$

[0057] The various gains indicated above may be set to be the same gain (e.g., the gains for the amplifiers used) or they may be different gains; for convenience, these gains are shown herein as being the same gain, however it should be understood that they may be different.

[0058] The voltage at the input of one of the sense electrodes, e.g., V.sub.4 is . For the forward and shorted configurations, respectively:

[00003]${}_N=V_{4,N}$${}_B=V_{4,B}$

[0059] The following set of equations describes the current flowing in the forward direction:

[00004]$V_4-V_5=\left(V_2-Z_4{I}_4\right)-\left(V_3-Z_5{I}_5\right)$$V_4-V_5=\left(V_2-V_3\right)+\left(Z_5{I}_5-Z_4{I}_4\right)$

[0060] Where V.sub.2V.sub.3 represents the measurement we want to make and (Z.sub.5I.sub.5Z.sub.4I.sub.4) represents the error term. Using the following equalities:

[00005]$V_2-V_3=Z_2{I}_2$$I_2=I_6+I_9$ [0061] it is possible to derive the relationship:

[00006]$\begin{array}{cc}{V}_4-V_5=Z_2\left(I_6+I_9\right)+Z_5{I}_5-Z_4{I}_4& \left[1\right]\end{array}$

[0062] Noting that I.sub.5=I.sub.9 and I.sub.4=I.sub.8,

[00007]$\begin{array}{cc}{V}_4-V_5=Z_2\left(I_6+I_9\right)+Z_5{I}_9-Z_4{I}_8& \left[2\right]\end{array}$

[0063] As mentioned above, the normal (e.g., forward/reverse) current operation may be indicated by the subscript of N in the measurement terms. Under this condition, I.sub.6>>I.sub.9, and the relationship simplifies to:

[00008]$\begin{array}{cc}{V}_{4,N}-V_{5,N}=Z_2{I}_{6,N}+Z_5{I}_{9,N}-Z_4{I}_{8,N}& \left[3\right]\end{array}$

[0064] For the shorted mode where current is sent to both source and sink electrodes simultaneously (and the subscript of B is included), I.sub.6+I.sub.9I.sub.2 and approximately equal to I.sub.8, which is also approximately equal to I.sub.9. However, Z.sub.2<<Z.sub.4 and Z.sub.2<<Z.sub.5, so Z.sub.2I.sub.2 can be set to zero. This assumption simplifies the relationship to:

[00009]$\begin{array}{cc}{V}_{4,B}-V_{5,B}=Z_5{I}_{9,B}-Z_4{I}_{8,B}.& \left[4\right]\end{array}$ [0065] Substituting in:

[00010]$I_{9,B}=\frac{V_{5,B}}{Z_9}\mathrm{and}{I}_{8,B}=\frac{V_{4,B}}{Z_8}$ [0066] results in:

[00011]$\begin{array}{cc}{V}_{4,B}-V_{5,B}=Z_5\left(\frac{V_{5,B}}{Z_9}\right)-Z_4\left(\frac{V_{4,B}}{Z_8}\right)& \left[5\right]\end{array}$

[0067] The ratio of voltages (e.g., V.sub.4/V.sub.5) is fairly consistent, independent of the mode of operation. This was validated empirically. In some variations, an additional measurement at V.sub.5 may be used to obviate the need for this approximation. Using the relationship:

[00012]$\frac{V_{4,N}}{V_{5,N}}\frac{V_{4,B}}{V_{5,B}}$

and rearranging to

[00013]$\frac{V_{4,N}}{V_{4,B}}\frac{V_{5,N}}{V_{5,B}}$ [0068] and multiplying both sides of equation [5] above, results in:

[00014]$\begin{array}{cc}\left(V_{4,B}-V_{5,B}\right)\left(\frac{V_{4,N}}{V_{4,B}}\right)=Z_5\left(\frac{V_{5,N}}{Z_9}\right)\left(\frac{V_{5,N}}{V_{5,B}}\right)-Z_4\left(\frac{V_{4,B}}{Z_8}\right)\left(\frac{V_{4,N}}{V_{4,B}}\right)& \left[6\right]\end{array}$

[0069] This can be simplified to:

[00015]$\begin{array}{cc}\left(V_{4,B}-V_{5,B}\right)\left(\frac{V_{4,N}}{V_{4,B}}\right)=Z_5\left(\frac{V_{5,N}}{Z_9}\right)-Z_4\left(\frac{V_{4,N}}{Z_8}\right)& \left[7\right]\end{array}$

[0070] Noting that

[00016]$\frac{V_{5,N}}{Z_9}=I_{9,N}\mathrm{and}\frac{V_{4,N}}{Z_8}=I_{8,N}$

results in:

[00017]$\begin{array}{cc}\left(V_{4,B}-V_{5,B}\right)\left(\frac{V_{4,N}}{V_{4,B}}\right)=Z_5{I}_{9,N}-Z_4{I}_{8,N}& \left[8\right]\end{array}$

[0071] Subtracting equation [8] from [3] produces:

[00018]$\begin{array}{cc}\left(V_{4,N}-V_{5,N}\right)-\left(V_{4,B}-V_{5,B}\right)\left(\frac{V_{4,N}}{V_{4,B}}\right)=Z_2{I}_{6,N}+Z_5{I}_{9,N}-Z_4{I}_{8,N}-Z_5{I}_{9,N}+Z_4{I}_{8,N}& \left[9\right]\end{array}$

[0072] Canceling results in:

[00019]$\begin{array}{cc}\left(V_{4,N}-V_{5,N}\right)-\left(V_{4,B}-V_{5,B}\right)\left(\frac{V_{4,N}}{V_{4,B}}\right)=Z_2{I}_{6,N}& \left[10\right]\end{array}$

[0073] Finally solving for the tissue impedance (Z.sub.2), results in:

[00020]$\begin{array}{cc}{Z}_2=\frac{\left(V_{4,N}-V_{5,N}\right)-\left(V_{4B}-V_{5,B}\right)\left(\frac{V_{4,N}}{V_{4,B}}\right)}{I_{6,N}}& \left[11\right]\end{array}$

[0074] Thus, measuring all the terms in the above equation will provide a calibrated tissue impedance of tissue.

[0075] The equalities described above may be used in equation 11 to result in:

[00021]$\begin{array}{cc}{Z}_2=\left({}_N-{}_B*\left({}_N/{}_B\right)\right)/\left({}_N/Z_6\right)& \left[12\right]\end{array}$

[0076] The preceding analysis assumes that under normal operations, I.sub.6>I.sub.9 and thus, the Z.sub.2I.sub.9 term in equation 2 may be set to zero. In the situation where the current is applied to both current paths (e.g., the shorted configuration), I.sub.6+I.sub.9=I.sub.2 and is approximately the same as I.sub.8 and I.sub.9, and Z.sub.2<<Z.sub.4, and Z.sub.2<<Z.sub.5, allowing Z.sub.2I.sub.2=Z.sub.2 (I.sub.6+I.sub.9) in equation 2 to be set to zero. Finally, the ratio of the voltages V.sub.2 to V.sub.5 may be the same in the normal and shorted (blocked) modes, thus the ratio of V.sub.4,N/V.sub.4,B is approximately equal to V.sub.5,N/V.sub.5,B.

[0077] While the preferred embodiments of the devices and methods have been described in reference to the environment in which they were developed, they are merely illustrative of the principles of the inventions. The elements of the various embodiments may be incorporated into each of the other species to obtain the benefits of those elements in combination with such other species, and the various beneficial features may be employed in embodiments alone or in combination with each other. Other embodiments and configurations may be devised without departing from the spirit of the inventions and the scope of the appended claims.

[0078] Any of the methods (including user interfaces) described herein may be implemented as software, hardware or firmware, and may be described as a non-transitory computer-readable storage medium storing a set of instructions capable of being executed by a processor (e.g., computer, tablet, smartphone, etc.), that when executed by the processor causes the processor to control perform any of the steps, including but not limited to: displaying, communicating with the user, analyzing, modifying parameters (including timing, frequency, intensity, etc.), determining, alerting, or the like.

[0079] When a feature or element is herein referred to as being on another feature or element, it can be directly on the other feature or element or intervening features and/or elements may also be present. In contrast, when a feature or element is referred to as being directly on another feature or element, there are no intervening features or elements present. It will also be understood that, when a feature or element is referred to as being connected, attached or coupled to another feature or element, it can be directly connected, attached or coupled to the other feature or element or intervening features or elements may be present. In contrast, when a feature or element is referred to as being directly connected, directly attached or directly coupled to another feature or element, there are no intervening features or elements present. Although described or shown with respect to one embodiment, the features and elements so described or shown can apply to other embodiments. It will also be appreciated by those of skill in the art that references to a structure or feature that is disposed adjacent another feature may have portions that overlap or underlie the adjacent feature.

[0080] Terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting of the invention. For example, as used herein, the singular forms a, an and the are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. It will be further understood that the terms comprises and/or comprising, when used in this specification, specify the presence of stated features, steps, operations, elements, and/or components, but do not preclude the presence or addition of one or more other features, steps, operations, elements, components, and/or groups thereof. As used herein, the term and/or includes any and all combinations of one or more of the associated listed items and may be abbreviated as /.

[0081] Spatially relative terms, such as under, below, lower, over, upper and the like, may be used herein for ease of description to describe one element or feature's relationship to another element(s) or feature(s) as illustrated in the figures. It will be understood that the spatially relative terms are intended to encompass different orientations of the device in use or operation in addition to the orientation depicted in the figures. For example, if a device in the figures is inverted, elements described as under or beneath other elements or features would then be oriented over the other elements or features. Thus, the exemplary term under can encompass both an orientation of over and under. The device may be otherwise oriented (rotated 90 degrees or at other orientations) and the spatially relative descriptors used herein interpreted accordingly. Similarly, the terms upwardly, downwardly, vertical, horizontal and the like are used herein for the purpose of explanation only unless specifically indicated otherwise.

[0082] Although the terms first and second may be used herein to describe various features/elements (including steps), these features/elements should not be limited by these terms, unless the context indicates otherwise. These terms may be used to distinguish one feature/element from another feature/element. Thus, a first feature/element discussed below could be termed a second feature/element, and similarly, a second feature/element discussed below could be termed a first feature/element without departing from the teachings of the present invention.

[0083] Throughout this specification and the claims which follow, unless the context requires otherwise, the word comprise, and variations such as comprises and comprising means various components can be co-jointly employed in the methods and articles (e.g., compositions and apparatuses including device and methods). For example, the term comprising will be understood to imply the inclusion of any stated elements or steps but not the exclusion of any other elements or steps.

[0084] In general, any of the apparatuses and methods described herein should be understood to be inclusive, but all or a sub-set of the components and/or steps may alternatively be exclusive, and may be expressed as consisting of or alternatively consisting essentially of the various components, steps, sub-components or sub-steps.

[0085] As used herein in the specification and claims, including as used in the examples and unless otherwise expressly specified, all numbers may be read as if prefaced by the word about or approximately, even if the term does not expressly appear. The phrase about or approximately may be used when describing magnitude and/or position to indicate that the value and/or position described is within a reasonable expected range of values and/or positions. For example, a numeric value may have a value that is +/0.1% of the stated value (or range of values), +/1% of the stated value (or range of values), +/2% of the stated value (or range of values), +/5% of the stated value (or range of values), +/10% of the stated value (or range of values), etc. Any numerical values given herein should also be understood to include about or approximately that value, unless the context indicates otherwise. For example, if the value 10 is disclosed, then about 10 is also disclosed. Any numerical range recited herein is intended to include all sub-ranges subsumed therein. It is also understood that when a value is disclosed that less than or equal to the value, greater than or equal to the value and possible ranges between values are also disclosed, as appropriately understood by the skilled artisan. For example, if the value X is disclosed the less than or equal to X as well as greater than or equal to X (e.g., where X is a numerical value) is also disclosed. It is also understood that the throughout the application, data is provided in a number of different formats, and that this data, represents endpoints and starting points, and ranges for any combination of the data points. For example, if a particular data point 10 and a particular data point 15 are disclosed, it is understood that greater than, greater than or equal to, less than, less than or equal to, and equal to 10 and 15 are considered disclosed as well as between 10 and 15. It is also understood that each unit between two particular units are also disclosed. For example, if 10 and 15 are disclosed, then 11, 12, 13, and 14 are also disclosed.

[0086] Although various illustrative embodiments are described above, any of a number of changes may be made to various embodiments without departing from the scope of the invention as described by the claims. For example, the order in which various described method steps are performed may often be changed in alternative embodiments, and in other alternative embodiments one or more method steps may be skipped altogether. Optional features of various device and system embodiments may be included in some embodiments and not in others. Therefore, the foregoing description is provided primarily for exemplary purposes and should not be interpreted to limit the scope of the invention as it is set forth in the claims.

[0087] The examples and illustrations included herein show, by way of illustration and not of limitation, specific embodiments in which the subject matter may be practiced. As mentioned, other embodiments may be utilized and derived there from, such that structural and logical substitutions and changes may be made without departing from the scope of this disclosure. Such embodiments of the inventive subject matter may be referred to herein individually or collectively by the term invention merely for convenience and without intending to voluntarily limit the scope of this application to any single invention or inventive concept, if more than one is, in fact, disclosed. Thus, although specific embodiments have been illustrated and described herein, any arrangement calculated to achieve the same purpose may be substituted for the specific embodiments shown. This disclosure is intended to cover any and all adaptations or variations of various embodiments. Combinations of the above embodiments, and other embodiments not specifically described herein, will be apparent to those of skill in the art upon reviewing the above description.