Nanoparticles

Abstract

The present invention relates to nanoparticles of π-conjugated polymers. The present invention also relates to an aqueous composition comprising these polymeric nanoparticles, to processes for making the nanoparticles, and to the use of these nanoparticles in the fabrication of electronic devices and components.

Claims

1. An aqueous composition comprising a plurality of nanoparticles dispersed in an aqueous medium, wherein: (i) the nanoparticles comprise a core formed from one or more non-cross-linked organic π-conjugated polymers; (ii) the nanoparticles have a particle size of less than 400 nm; and (iii) the concentration of the nanoparticles in the aqueous medium is greater than or equal to 12 mM; and wherein the non-cross-linked organic π-conjugated polymers are intrinsic semi-conductors that do not comprise any carbon-carbon triple bonds.

2. An aqueous composition according to claim 1, wherein the core of the nanoparticles consists essentially of the one or more non-cross-linked organic π-conjugated polymers.

3. An aqueous composition according to claim 1, wherein the polymeric backbone of the non-cross-linked organic π-conjugated polymer is uncharged.

4. An aqueous composition according to claim 1, wherein core of the nanoparticles are coated with a stabiliser.

5. An aqueous composition according to claim 1, wherein the monomeric units present in the non-cross-linked π-conjugated polymers are selected from the group consisting of: ##STR00029## ##STR00030## ##STR00031## wherein R, R.sub.1 and R.sub.2 are hydrogen or organic substituent groups (e.g. a hydrocarbyl substituent group optionally comprising 1 to 30 carbon atoms and optionally comprising one or more heteroatoms (e.g. N, O, S, Si, or P), or an aromatic or heteroaromatic group); M is a metal (e.g. Ir, Pt, Rh, Re, Ru, Os, Cr, Cu, Pd, or Au); L is a ligand (e.g. a halide or a hydrocarbyl substituent group optionally comprising 1 to 30 carbon atoms and optionally comprising one or more heteroatoms (e.g. N, O, S, Si, or P) or an aromatic or hetroaromatic group); and wherein each of the above structures is optionally further substituted with one or more organic substituent groups (e.g. a hydrocarbyl substituent groups optionally comprising 1 to 30 carbon atoms and optionally comprising one or more heteroatoms (e.g. N, O, S, Si, or P) or an aromatic or heteroaromatic group).

6. An aqueous composition according to claim 1, wherein the monomeric units present in the non-cross-linked organic π-conjugated polymers are selected from the group consisting of: ##STR00032## ##STR00033## wherein R, R.sub.1, R.sub.2, R.sub.3, R.sub.4, R.sub.5, R.sub.6 and R.sub.7 are each independently selected from hydrogen or a hydrocarbyl substituent group comprising 1 to 30 carbon atoms and optionally comprising one or more heteroatoms (e.g. N, O, S, Si, or P); a is 0, 1, 2 or 3; b is 0, 1, 2 or 3; c and d are 0, 1 or 2; e and f are 0 or 1; x is 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4; y is 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4; and z is 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4.

7. An aqueous composition according to claim 1, wherein the aqueous medium is water.

8. An aqueous composition according to claim 1, wherein the size of the nanoparticles is within the range of 30 to 300 nm.

9. An aqueous composition according to claim 1, wherein the concentration of the nanoparticles in the aqueous medium is greater than or equal to 15 mM.

10. A method of forming an aqueous composition as claimed in claim 1, said method comprising: (i) forming the nanoparticles by emulsion polymerisation or miniemulsion polymerisation techniques to form an aqueous suspension of nanoparticles; and (ii) optionally purifying the nanoparticle suspension.

11. A method according to claim 10, wherein the nanoparticles are formed by a Stille or Suzuki polymerisation reaction.

12. Nanoparticles comprising one or more non-cross-linked organic π-conjugated polymers, wherein: (i) the nanoparticles are formed from one or more non-cross-linked organic π-conjugated having a solubility in an organic solvent [e.g. chlorobenzene at room temperature] of less than 10 mg/ml; and (ii) the nanoparticles have a particle size of less than 400 nm.

13. Nanoparticles according to claim 12, wherein the monomeric units present in the non-cross-linked π-conjugated polymers have the formula: ##STR00034## wherein R.sub.1, R.sub.2, R.sub.3, and R.sub.4 are each independently selected from hydrogen or a hydrocarbyl substituent group comprising 1 to 30 carbon atoms and optionally comprising one or more heteroatoms (e.g., N, O, S, Si, or P); and n is at least 1; c and d are 0, 1 or 2; and e and f are 0 or 1.

14. Nanoparticles according to claim 12, wherein the monomeric units present in the non-cross-linked π-conjugated polymers have the formula: ##STR00035## wherein R.sub.1 and R.sub.2 are each independently selected from hydrogen or a hydrocarbyl substituent group comprising 1 to 30 carbon atoms and optionally comprising one or more heteroatoms (e.g., N, O, S, Si, or P); and n is at least 1.

15. Nanoparticles according to claim 12, wherein the size of the nanoparticles is within the range of 30 to 300 nm.

16. A process for preparing an organic semi-conductor or photovoltaic device or component, said process comprising: (i) depositing an aqueous composition comprising nanoparticles as defined in claim 1 onto a substrate; and (ii) heating the substrate to a temperature above the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the nanoparticles to form a film of organic π-conjugated polymer on the substrate.

17. An organic semi-conductive film obtained by the process of claim 16.

18. An organic semi-conductor or photovoltaic device or component obtained by a process as defined in claim 16.

19. An organic semi-conductor or photovoltaic device or component comprising an organic semi-conductive film as claimed in claim 17.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) The invention is described further in reference to the accompanying Figures in which:

(2) FIG. 1 shows a schematic representation of the mini-emulsion polymerisation process.

(3) FIG. 2 shows the UV-vis absorption (dashed line) and PL emission spectra (solid line) of nanoparticles obtained by reactions 1-4 of Example 3; λ.sub.ex=390 nm for reactions 1 and 3, λ.sub.ex=450 nm for reactions 2 and 4.

(4) FIG. 3 shows a schematic view of the top-gate/bottom contact device on glass (see Example 4).

(5) FIG. 4 shows an example transfer curve of the nanoparticle PBTTT top-gated/bottom contact transistor and the output characteristics of the same device (see Example 4)

(6) FIG. 5 shows a further example transfer curve of the linear PBTTT top-gated/bottom contact transistor and the output characteristics of the same device (see Example 4).

EXAMPLES

Example 1

Preparation of conjugated nanoparticles of Poly(2,5-bis(3-tetradecylthiophen-2-yl)thieno[3,2-b]thiophene) (PBTTT) and Poly(3,6-Di(2-thien-5-yl)-2,5-di(2-octyldodecyl)-pyrrolo[3,4-c]pyrrole-1,4-dione)thieno[3,2-b]thiophene (PDPPTT)

(7) Poly(2,5-bis(3-tetradecylthiophen-2-yl)thieno[3,2-b]thiophene) (PBTTT).sup.1 and Poly(3,6-Di(2-thien-5-yl)-2,5-di(2-octyldodecyl)-pyrrolo[3,4-c]pyrrole-1,4-dione)thieno[3,2-b]thiophene (PDPPTT).sup.2 both possess high hole-carrier mobilities as semi-conducting layer in Organic Field Effect Transistors (OFETs).

(8) The structures of PBTTT and PDPPTT are shown below:

(9) ##STR00014##

(10) In this example, polymers were synthesised by a technique of miniemulsion polymerization made in two steps: 1. Formation of monomers/catalyst minidroplets by injection of the organic solution in an emulsifier solution in water. 2. Polymerisation in the miniemulsion by Stille cross-coupling reaction between 2,5-bistrimethylstannyl-thieno[3,2-b]thiophene and 5,5′-dibromo-4,4′-ditetradecyl-2,2′-bithiophene (for PBTTT) or 3,6-Di(2-bromothien-5-yl)-2,5-di(2-octyldodecyl)-pyrrolo[3,4-c]pyrrole-1,4-dione (for PDPPTT).

(11) The process is shown schematically in FIG. 1.

Experimental

Synthesis of 3-tetradecylthiophene

(12) ##STR00015##

(13) A dry 100 mL three neck round bottom flask equipped with a reflux condenser was flushed with argon and charged with magnesium (1.23 g, 51 mmol), one crystal of 12, and 60 mL of anhydrous THF. To this solution, 1-bromotetradecane (14.6 mL, 49 mmol) was added dropwise under stirring. The reaction mixture was gently refluxed for 1 h under a nitrogen atmosphere. In a separate flask, 3-bromothiophene (4.6 mL, 49 mmol) and Ni(dppe)Cl.sub.2 (155 mg, 0.29 mmol) were dissolved in 30 mL of anhydrous diethyl ether. The solution of 1-magnesiobromotetradecane was cannulated to the flask containing the 3-bromothiophene and the Ni(dppe)Cl.sub.2 catalyst. The reaction was gently refluxed overnight under a nitrogen atmosphere. The reaction mixture was quenched by pouring into a beaker containing ice and HCl. The organic phase was washed with brine and water three times and was extracted with diethyl ether. The ether phase was dried over MgSO4, filtered and the solvent removed. 3-tetradecylthiophene was purified by column chromatography (silica gel, pentane). 1H NMR (CDCl.sub.3, 400 MHz): δ 7.22-7.20 (m, 1H), 6.91-6.88 (m, 2H), 2.60-2.58 (t, J=7.6 Hz, 2H), 1.64 (m, 2H), 1.32-1.25 (m, 22H), 0.89-0.87 (t, J=6.6 Hz, 3H). .sup.13C NMR (CDCl.sub.3, 75 MHz,) δ 143.5, 138.4, 125.2, 119.3, 34.3, 32.1, 30.7, 30.4, 29.8, 29.8, 29.8, 29.6, 29.5, 29.5, 29.3, 22.9, 22.5, 14.3.

Synthesis of 2-bromo-3-tetradecylthiophene

(14) ##STR00016##

(15) The compound 3-tetradecylthiophene (3 g, 11 mmol) was dissolved in a mixture of CHCl.sub.3 and acetic acid (5 mL/5 mL) at 0° C. NBS (2.47 g, 14 mmol) was added portionwise and stirred for 20 min at 0° C. The solution was washed with water (2×50 mL), saturated NaHCO.sub.3 (1×50 mL), and a final wash with water (1×50 mL). The organic layer was dried with anhydrous MgSO.sub.4, concentrated, and purified by column chromatography (silica gel, pentane) to recover 2-bromo-3-tetradecylthiophene as a colourless oil (1.6 g, 42% yield). .sup.1H NMR (CDCl.sub.3, 400 MHz): δ 6.90 (d, J=7.6 Hz, 1H), 6.81 (d, J=7.6 Hz, 1H), 2.60-2.50 (t, J=7.6 Hz, 2H), 1.65-1.50 (m, 2H,), 1.40-1.15 (m, 22H), 0.91-0.81 (t, J=6.6 Hz, 3H). .sup.13C NMR (CDCl.sub.3, 75 MHz,) δ 142.1, 128.4, 125.3, 108.9, 53.9, 32.1, 29.9, 29.9, 29.8, 29.8, 29.7, 29.6, 29.5, 29.5, 29.4, 22.9, 22.9, 14.3.

Synthesis of 5,5′-dibromo-4,4′-ditetradecyl-2,2′-bithiophene

(16) ##STR00017##

(17) Diisopropylamine (465 mg, 4.6 mmol) was added to 30 mL of THF and the solution was cooled to 0° C. A 1.6 M n-Buli solution (2.6 mL, 4.2 mmol) was added dropwise during 30 minutes. The resulting mixture was stirred at 0° C. for another 30 min before cooling to −78° C. and subsequent dropwise addition of a solution of 2-bromo-3-tetradecylthiophene (1.5 g, 4.2 mmol) in 5 mL dry THF. The reaction mixture was stirred 60 min at −78° C., before dried copper(II)chloride (0.46 g, 5 mmol) was added in one portion. The reaction mixture was kept at −78° C. for 30 min in which the color of the reaction mixture changed from clear green/turquoise to clear blue to clear purple to clear brown to turbid brown. The cooling was removed and the reaction mixture was allowed to warm up to room temperature overnight. The reaction mixture was worked up by acidification of the reaction mixture with dilute hydrochloric acid to neutral pH followed by extraction with ether (3×50 mL), washing the combined ether layers with water (2×50 mL) followed by drying of the ether layer over MgSO.sub.4. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure and the resulting brown oil was purified using column chromatography (silica gel, hexane) to give a crude product. The crude product was dissolved in a small amount of chloroform and precipitated in methanol cooled to 0° C., dried under vacuum at RT and finally recrystallized from ethyl acetate to give 2.42 g (3.4 mmol, 81%) of product as fluffy bright yellow crystals. .sup.1H NMR (CDCl.sub.3, 300 MHz) δ 6.79 (s, 2H), 2.55 (t, J=7.6 Hz, 4H), 1.57 (quint, 4H), 1.28 (m, 44H), 0.88 (t, J=7.6 Hz, 6H). .sup.13C NMR (CDCl.sub.3, 75 MHz,) δ 143.0, 136.2, 124.5, 107.9, 53.4, 32.0, 29.7, 29.7, 29.7, 29.7, 29.6, 29.6, 29.4, 29.4, 29.2, 22.7, 22.7, 14.2; HRMS (MALDI): m/z calcd for C.sub.30H.sub.60Br.sub.2S.sub.2: 716.25 (100%), 718.25 (54.3%); 714.25 (49.0%) [M]+; found: 716, 718, 714; elemental analysis calcd (%) for C.sub.36H.sub.60Br.sub.2S.sub.2: C, 60.32; H, 8.44; Br, 22.29; S, 8.95. found C, 60.25; H, 8.48; Br, 22.36; S, 8.84.

Synthesis of 9-(iodomethyl)nonadecane

(18) ##STR00018##

(19) To a stirred solution of 2-octyl-dodecanol (14.8 mL, 42 mmol) in 40 mL of dichloromethane at 0° C. was added triphenylphosphine (11.9 mL, 50 mmol) and imidazole (2.8 mL, 50 mmol). The mixture was stirred for 15 minutes before iodine (12.1 g, 48 mmol) was added. The reaction was allowed to warm to room temperature over 2 h before the addition of 5 mL of saturated Na.sub.2SO.sub.3. The bright yellow reaction mixture was concentrated in vacuo, diluted with pentane (50 mL) and washed three times with water (100 mL) and once with brine (100 mL). The resulting pentane solution was passed through a 3 cm plug and concentrated in vacuo to yield the product as a colourless oil (16.6 g, 98%). NMR (CDCl.sub.3, 400 MHz): δ 3.28 (d, J=4.5 Hz, 2H), 1.11-1.34 (m, 33H), 0.85-0.94 (m, 6H). .sup.13C NMR (CDCl.sub.3, 75 MHz,) δ 38.8, 34.6, 32.1, 32.0, 29.9, 29.8, 29.7, 29.5, 28.9, 22.9, 22.8, 17.1, 14.3.

Synthesis of 3,6-Dithiophen-2-yl-2,5-dihydro-pyrrolo[3,4-c]pyrrole-1,4-dione

(20) ##STR00019##

(21) Sodium (3.16 g, 137 mmol), t-amyl alcohol (45 mL) and iron(III)chloride (50 mg) were added into a flask. The mixture was warmed up to 95-102° C. for 1 h until the sodium disappeared, and then cooled to 85° C. 2-Thiophenecarbonitrile (8.53 mL, 92 mmol) was injected in one portion. Diethyl succinate (6.09 mL, 37 mmol) in 5 mL of t-amyl alcohol was dropped slowly in 15 min. The mixture was kept at 85° C. for 2 h and was then cooled to 50° C. The mixture was then diluted with methanol (25 mL). Glacial acetic acid (15 mL) was added slowly and the mixture was refluxed for 2 min. The mixture was cooled to 50° C. again and was diluted with methanol (25 mL). The suspension was filtered. The solid product was washed with hot water and methanol, and was dried under vacuum at the temperature of 60° C. to get a deep red solid (6 g, 55%). The product was used for next step without further purification. .sup.1H NMR (DMSO-D.sub.6), 400 MHz): δ 11.26 (s, 2H), 8.21 (d, J=3.7 Hz, 2H), 7.96 (d, J=4.9 Hz, 2H), 7.30 (dd, J.sub.1=3.7 Hz, J.sub.2=4.9 Hz, 2H). .sup.13C NMR (CDCl.sub.3, 75 MHz,) δ 161.8, 136.2, 132.7, 131.3, 130.9, 128.8, 108.9.

Synthesis of 2,5-bis(2-octyldodecyl)-3,6-di(thiophen-2-yl)-2,5-dihydropyrrolo[3,4-c]pyrrole-1,4-dione

(22) ##STR00020##

(23) Anhydrous potassium tert-butoxide (1.15 g, 10 mmol) and 3,6-Dithiophen-2-yl-2,5-dihydro-pyrrolo[3,4-c]pyrrole-1,4-dione (1.4 g, 5 mmol) were dissolved in N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF, 40 mL) and were heated to 120° C. under argon for 1 h. 9-(iodomethyl)nonadecane (11.42 g, 28 mmol) was added dropwise and the mixture was heated overnight at 130° C. The solution was cooled to room temperature. It was poured into water (200 mL) and was extracted with dichloromethane. The organic layer was collected and dried with anhydrous MgSO.sub.4. Solvent was removed under reduced pressure and residue was purified by flash chromatography on silica gel dichloromethane/petroleum ether (1:5) as eluent to give the titled compound (1 g, 25%). .sup.1H NMR (CDCl.sub.3, 400 MHz): δ 8.87 (d, J=4.0 Hz, 2H), 7.62 (d, J=4.8 Hz, 2H), 7.27 (m, 2H), 4.02 (d, J=8.0 Hz, 4H), 1.90 (s, 2H), 1.18-1.34 (m, 32H), 0.85 (m, 12H). .sup.13C (CDCl.sub.3, 100 MHz): δ 161.9, 140.6, 135.4, 130.8, 130.0, 128.5, 108.1, 46.3, 37.9, 32.1, 32.0, 30.2, 30.2, 29.8, 29.8, 22.8, 22.8, 14.3, 14.3. HRMS (MALDI): m/z calcd for C.sub.54H.sub.88N.sub.2O.sub.2S.sub.2: 860.63 (100%), 861.63 (61.8%), 862.64 (17.4%); [M]+; found: 860, 861, 862, 863, 864.

Synthesis of 3,6-Di(2-bromothien-5-yl)-2,5-di(2-octyldodecyl)-pyrrolo[3,4-c]pyrrole-1,4-dione

(24) ##STR00021##

(25) 2,5-bis(2-octyldodecyl)-3,6-di(thiophen-2-yl)-2,5-dihydropyrrolo[3,4-c]pyrrole-1,4-dione (400 mg, 0.46 mmol) was dissolved in anhydrous chloroform (20 mL) in a Schlenk flask under argon wrapped with aluminum foil. N-Bromosuccinimide (215 mg, 1.21 mmol) was added in portions and the mixture was stirred at room temperature under argon overnight. The reaction mixture was then poured into ice water (250 mL) and extracted with dichloromethane. The organic layers were collected and dried with anhydrous MgSO.sub.4. Solvent was removed under reduced pressure and residue was purified by flash chromatography on silica gel with diethyl ether/hexane (1:30) as eluent. The compound was then suspended in methanol, filtered and the remaining crystals were washed with hot water, cold methanol and dried under vacuum to obtain a dark red solid (450 mg, 95%). .sup.1H NMR (CDCl.sub.3, 400 MHz): δ 8.62 (d, J=4 Hz, 2H), 7.21 (d, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 3.92 (d, J=8.0 Hz, 4H), 1.85 (s, 2H), 1.18-1.30 (m, 32H), 0.86 (m, 12H). .sup.13C (CDCl.sub.3, 100 MHz): δ 161.6, 139.6, 135.6, 131.6, 131.4, 119.2, 108.2, 46.5, 38.0, 32.2, 32.1, 31.4, 30.2, 30.0, 30.0, 29.8, 29.7, 29.6, 29.5, 26.4, 22.9, 22.9, 14.4. HRMS (MALDI): m/z calcd for C.sub.54H.sub.86Br.sub.2N.sub.2O.sub.2S.sub.2: 1018.45 (100%), 1020.45 (64.4%); [M]+; found: 1016, 1017, 1018, 1019, 1020.

Synthesis of 2,5-Bistrimethylstannyl-thieno[3,2-b]thiophene

(26) ##STR00022##

(27) Thieno[3,2-b]thiophene (1.11 g, 7.9 mmol) are dissolved in 20 ml anhydrous THF under argon and cooled to −50° C. 10 mL (16.6 mmol) of a 1.6M n-butyllithium solution in hexane are added dropwise for 45 minutes. The mixture is stirred for 2 hours at −50° C., then trimethyltin chloride (3.47 g, 17.4 mmol) in 18 mL of anhydrous THF is added. The solution is stirred at −50° C. for 2 h, then warmed up to room temperature, and stirred overnight at this temperature. The solution is diluted with 100 ml diethylether, extracted with aqueous sodium bicarbonate solution, dried and evaporated. The residue is crystallized from acetonitrile at −20° C. to yield 1.9 g (58%) of colourless crystals. .sup.1H NMR (CD.sub.2Cl.sub.2, 300 MHz,): δ 7.28 (s, 2H), 0.41 (s, 2H); .sup.13C NMR (CDCl.sub.3, 75 MHz,): δ 147.6, 141.4, 126.1, −8.1.

1A Emulsion Polymerization of PBTTT Nanoparticles

(28) ##STR00023##

(29) Hexadecane (0.03 mL) was added to an aqueous solution (16 mL) of an ionic surfactant, sodium dodecyl sulfate (410 mg, 2 wt % in de-ionized water) in a Schlenk tube. The contents were then degassed at room temperature by carefully evacuating/refilling the Schlenk tube with argon (3 times) and then by bubbling argon through the stirred solution for 30 minutes. 5,5′-dibromo-4,4′-ditetradecyl-2,2′-bithiophene (200 mg, 279 μmol), 2,5-Bistrimethylstannyl-thieno[3,2-b]thiophene (130 mg, 279 μmol), Pd.sub.2(dba).sub.3 (5 mg, 5.6 μmol) and P(o-tol).sub.3 (7 mg, 22.3 μmol) are added in a separate 25 mL Schlenk tube inside a glove box with an argon atmosphere and then dissolved in 4 mL of toluene. The monomer/catalyst solution was then degassed by bubbling argon through the stirred solution for 10 minutes. The monomers/catalyst mixture was finally added into the stirred surfactant solution and the resulting mixture was stirred for 10 minutes for preemulsification. The miniemulsion was prepared by ultrasonicating the mixture for 10 min. The mixture was then heated up to 85° C. This temperature was maintained at a stirring speed of 700 rpm under an argon atmosphere for 24 h. The nanoparticles suspension is then dialysed via dialysis membrane tubing immersed in 2 L of de-ionized water for 5 days (the water is replaced every day in order to be rid of the maximum of surfactant). The suspension is afterward poured in a beaker and a mixture of SiliaMetS® Thiourea (5 mg, loading 1.08 mmol/g) and SiliaMetS® TAAcONa (1188 mg, loading 0.47 mmol/g). The amounts of metal to be scavenged and metal scavenger to use are calculated according to the following formula proposed by the Silicycle® Company:

(30) $\mathrm{amount}\mathrm{of}\mathrm{metal}\mathrm{in}m\mathrm{mol}=\frac{\mathrm{Qty}\mathrm{of}\mathrm{catalyst}\mathrm{used}\mathrm{for}\mathrm{the}\mathrm{reaction}\times 1000}{\mathrm{metal}\mathrm{catalyst}\mathrm{molecular}\mathrm{weight}}$$\mathrm{amount}\mathrm{of}\mathrm{SiliaMetS}\mathrm{to}\mathrm{use}=\frac{\mathrm{amount}\mathrm{of}\mathrm{metal}\mathrm{in}m\mathrm{mol}}{\mathrm{SiliaMetS}\mathrm{loading}}$

(31) The mixture is stirred at room temperature for 24 h and then filtered through cotton to afford the suspension ready to be used for the deposition on a SiO.sub.2/Si substrate. GPC (CH.sub.5Cl) Mn (16428 g/mol), Mw (31458 g/mol).

1B Emulsion Polymerization of PDPPTT Nanoparticles

(32) ##STR00024##

(33) Hexadecane (0.05 mL) was added to an aqueous solution (25 mL) of an ionic surfactant, sodium dodecyl sulfate (625 mg, 2 wt % in de-ionized water) in a Schlenk tube. The contents were then degassed at room temperature by carefully evacuating/refilling the Schlenk tube with argon (3 times) and then by bubbling argon through the stirred solution for 30 minutes. 3,6-Di(2-bromothien-5-yl)-2,5-di(2-octyldodecyl)-pyrrolo[3,4-c]pyrrole-1,4-dione (100 mg, 98 μmol), 2,5-Bistrimethylstannyl-thieno[3,2-b]thiophene (46 mg, 98 μmol), Pd.sub.2(dba).sub.3 (1.8 mg, 1.96 μmol) and P(o-tol).sub.3 (2.4 mg, 7.85 μmol) are added in a separate 25 mL Schlenk tube inside a glove box with an argon atmosphere and then dissolved in 2 mL of toluene. The monomer/catalyst solution was then degassed by bubbling argon through the stirred solution for 10 minutes. The monomers/catalyst mixture was finally added into the stirred surfactant solution and the resulting mixture was stirred for 10 minutes for preemulsification. The miniemulsion was prepared by ultrasonicating the mixture for 10 min. The mixture was then heated up to 85° C. This temperature was maintained at a stirring speed of 700 rpm under an argon atmosphere for 24 h. The nanoparticles suspension is then dialysed via dialysis membrane tubing immersed in 2 L of de-ionized water for 5 days (the water is replaced every day in order to be rid of the maximum of surfactant). The suspension is afterward poured in a beaker and a mixture of SiliaMetS® Thiourea (2 mg, loading 1.08 mmol/g) and SiliaMetS® TAAcONa (418 mg, loading 0.47 mmol/g). The mixture is stirred at room temperature for 24 h and then filtered through cotton. GPC (CH.sub.5Cl) Mn (13422 g/mol), Mw (178131 g/mol).

1C Emulsion Polymerization of PDPPTT Nanoparticles (10 mg/mL)

(34) Hexadecane (0.01 mL) was added to an aqueous solution (13 mL) of an ionic surfactant, sodium dodecyl sulfate (333 mg, 2 wt % in de-ionized water) in a Schlenk tube. The contents were then degassed at room temperature by carefully evacuating/refilling the Schlenk tube with argon (3 times) and then by bubbling argon through the stirred solution for 30 minutes. 3,6-Di(2-bromothien-5-yl)-2,5-di(2-octyldodecyl)-pyrrolo[3,4-c]pyrrole-1,4-dione (80 mg, 78 μmol), 2,5-Bistrimethylstannyl-thieno[3,2-b]thiophene (37 mg, 78 μmol), Pd.sub.2(dba).sub.3 (1.4 mg, 1.57 μmol) and P(o-tol).sub.3 (1.91 mg, 6.28 μmol) are added in a separate 25 mL Schlenk tube inside a glove box with an argon atmosphere and then dissolved in 3.2 mL of chlorobenzene. The monomer/catalyst solution was then degassed by bubbling argon through the stirred solution for 10 minutes. The monomers/catalyst mixture was finally added into the stirred surfactant solution and the resulting mixture was stirred for 10 minutes for preemulsification. The miniemulsion was prepared by ultrasonicating the mixture for 10 min. The mixture was then heated up to 85° C. This temperature was maintained at a stirring speed of 700 rpm under an argon atmosphere for 24 h. The nanoparticles are extracted by centrifugation (14000 rpm for 30 min) of 0.1 mL of the reaction mixture in a 1.5 mL eppendorf (supplemented with 1.4 mL de-ionized water). The particles are washed by re-suspending them in de-ionized water followed by centrifugation at 14000 rpm for 30 min (process is carried out three times). The particles are afterward re-suspended in de-ionized water (10 mg/mL) and poured in a beaker and a mixture of SiliaMetS® Thiourea (2 mg, loading 1.08 mmol/g) and SiliaMetS® TAAcONa (334 mg, loading 0.47 mmol/g). The mixture is stirred at room temperature for 24 h and then filtered through cotton.

(35) Characterisation of Nanoparticles:

(36) Size and Zeta-potential of Nanoparticles

(37) Nanoparticle sample are prepared with withdrawing 1 mg of particles from the reaction mixture. Sample is washed with de-ionized water (overall volume of 1.5 mL). The water is removed after the centrifugation of the sample (14000 rpm for 20 min). This process is done three times. The size and zeta potential of the nanoparticle dispersions were measured using a Malvern Zetasizer, Nano ZS, at a temperature of 20° C.

(38) The particle size of the PBTTT particles (1A) was 166 nm (PDI 0.078).

(39) The particle size of the PDPPTT particles (1B) was 217 nm (PDI 0.272) and the size of the PDPPTT (10 mg/ml) particles (1C) was 149 nm (PDI 0.202).

(40) Metal Scavenging

(41) Palladium and tin wastes from Stille cross-coupling are removed by functionalized silica gel from the Silicycle® Company: SiliaMet-Thiourea (Pd) and SiliaMet-TAAcONa (Sn).

(42) ##STR00025##

(43) Palladium and tin concentrations were checked by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometer (ICP-MS). It shows for PBTTT particles infinitesimal amounts of metal (See table 1) which suggests that all metal seems to be removed.

(44) TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Concentration of metal in PBTTT particles Quantity contained in the particles Before purification After purification 0.3% of Pd 94 ppm of Pd  19% of Sn 20 ppm of Sn

Example 2

Preparation of Conjugated Polymer Nanoparticles (CPN) in Emulsion Systems

(45) A range of stable emulsions of conjugated polymer nanoparticles (CPN) were synthesized via Suzuki cross-coupling reactions of 9, 9-dioctylfluorene-2, 7-diboronic acid bis (1, 3-propanediol) ester (1) with each of the dibromo monomeric structures (2, 3, 4 or 5) presented in Scheme 1 below. In each case, the two monomers and palladium catalyst, (IPr*)PdCl.sub.2(TEA) (2 mol %, structure 6) were dissolved in xylene and dispersed as an emulsion using the non-ionic surfactant, Triton X-102 (typically 5 wt % in water); the base used was tetraethylammonium hydroxide (1 equiv.).

(46) All polymerisation reactions described were successfully catalysed in emulsion conditions with (IPr*)PdCl.sub.2(TEA) at 30° C. after 24-48 hr.

(47) ##STR00026##

2.1. Syntheses of Poly(9,9-dioctylfluorene), PF8 [Poly(1-2)] emulsions

(48) Typical Polymerization Reaction. The following procedure was used to produce a nanoparticulate PF8 dispersion, designated as reaction A in Table 2. Tetraethylammonium hydroxide solution (40% in water) (0.16 g, 0.4 mmol) was added to an aqueous solution (50 ml) of non-ionic surfactant, Triton X-102 (2.5 g, 5 wt % in de-ionised water) in a 100 ml three necked round bottom flask. The contents were then thoroughly degassed for 30 min by bubbling nitrogen gas through the solution, whilst being stirred using a D-shaped PTFE paddle powered by an overhead stirrer motor. Then a separate 10 ml two necked round bottom flask was used to mix together the monomers in the organic solvent prior to addition to the reaction flask: Monomer 1 (0.1151 g, 0.2 mmol) and monomer 2 (0.1096 g, 0.2 mmol) were dissolved in xylene (2 ml). The monomer solution was degassed and then the catalyst (IPr*)PdCl.sub.2(TEA) (0.0095 g, 0.008 mmol) was added, followed by further degassing of the resultant solution. A syringe was used to transfer the monomer/catalyst solution into the stirring surfactant/base solution (300 rpm) in the main reaction flask now maintained at 30° C. The contents were mechanically stirred under nitrogen gas at 30° C. for 24 hours. The addition of the monomer/catalyst mixture causes the contents to become cloudy. After about one hour the reaction contents cleared as the nanoparticles formed and the colour of the dispersion progressively changed to pale yellow over the remaining reaction time.

(49) A sample of the final crude emulsion (0.5 ml) was added to a centrifuge vial and supplemented with 1.0 ml of methanol. The vial contents were then centrifuged at 14,000 rpm for 10 min. Polymeric material sedimented out and the supernatant liquid was decanted by pipette. Water (0.5 ml) was added to re-disperse the sample material, then methanol (1.0 ml) and a further centrifuge cycle at 14,000 rpm for 10 min was completed. The supernatant was again decanted from the vial and the polymer was left to dry under vacuum. A small amount of THF (1.5 ml) was added to the sample vial to re-dissolve the polymer in preparation for gel permeation chromatography (GPC) analysis to determine the molar mass of polymer present. The uv-vis spectral features and DLS analysis reported were obtained from 8 μL of crude emulsion in 3 ml of water. The fluorescence measurement of the emulsion was obtained from excitation at λ=390 nm.

(50) Higher concentrations of PF8 nanoparticles were achieved by increasing the monomer concentration in xylene and/or the amount of xylene and surfactant respectively as outlined in Reactions B, C and D in Table 2. The optical properties of the PF8 emulsions are outlined in Table 3.

(51) TEM analysis of the PF8 nanoparticulate emulsions indicated that regular rod-like structures were formed using this synthetic method. Rods up to 100 nm in length with aspect ratios of 4-5 were observed.

2.2 Syntheses of Poly[(9,9-di-octylfluorenyl-2,7-diyl)-co-(benzo[2,1,3]thiadiazol-4,8-diyl)]PF8BT [Poly(1-3)] emulsions

(52) The method described in Section 2.1. was replicated with boronic ester 1 (0.1151 g, 0.2 mmol) and dibromo 3 (0.05800 g, 0.2 mmol) monomers to synthesis an emulsion containing PF8BT nanoparticles (reaction E in Table 2). A sample of the polymer produced in the emulsion reaction was isolated for molar mass analysis using the method previously described. Characterisation of the molar mass of the polymer produced and the emulsion formed are presented in Table 2. The uv-vis spectral features and DLS analysis reported were obtained from 27 μL of crude emulsion in 3 ml of water. The fluorescence measurement of the emulsion was obtained from excitation at λ=470 nm.

(53) A higher concentration of PF8BT nanoparticles was obtained by increasing the concentration of monomer dissolved in the xylene at start of reaction (reaction F in Table 2). The optical properties of the PF8BT emulsions are outlined in Table 3.

(54) TEM analysis of the PF8BT nanoparticulate emulsions indicated regular distributions of spherical nanoparticles with average particle size (d.sub.n) of about 20 nm.

2.3. Syntheses of poly(9,9′-dioctylfluorene-co-bis-N,N′-(4-butylphenyl) diphenylamine), PF8TAA [Poly(1-4)] emulsions

(55) The method described in Section 2.1. was replicated with boronic ester 1 (0.1151 g, 0.2 mmol) and dibromo 4 (0.09180 g, 0.2 mmol) monomers to synthesis an emulsion containing PF8TAA nanoparticles (reaction G in Table 2). The reaction in this case was maintained at 30° C. for 48 hr. A sample of the polymer produced in the emulsion reaction was isolated for molar mass analysis using the method previously described. Characterisation of the molar mass of the polymer produced and the emulsion formed are presented in Table 2. The uv-vis spectral features and DLS analysis reported were obtained from 11 μL of crude emulsion in 3 ml of water. The fluorescence measurement of the emulsion was obtained from excitation at λ=380 nm.

(56) A further emulsion reaction to produce higher concentration of PF8TAA [Poly(1-4)] nanoparticles was successfully completed starting from a fourfold increased concentration of monomers, xylene, surfactant and base. This equated to producing an emulsion which contained 9.5 mg/ml of conjugated polymeric material (reaction H in Table 2).

(57) Tetraethylammonium hydroxide solution (40% in water) (0.6268 g, 1.6 mmol), was added to an aqueous solution (50 ml) of non-ionic surfactant, Triton X-102 (10 g, 20 wt % in de-ionised water) in a 100 ml three necked round bottom flask. The contents were then thoroughly degassed for 30 mins by bubbling nitrogen gas through the mechanically stirred solution. Then a separate 10 ml two necked round bottom flask was used to mix together the monomers in the organic solvent prior to addition to the reaction flask. Boronic ester 1 (0.4604 g, 0.8 mmol and dibromo 4 (0.3672 g, 0.8 mmol) were dissolved in xylene (8 ml). The monomer solution was degassed and then the catalyst (IPr*)PdCl.sub.2(TEA) (0.038 g, 0.032 mmol) was added, followed by further degassing of the resultant solution. A syringe was used to transfer the monomer/catalyst into the stirred surfactant/base solution (300 rpm) in the main reaction flask now maintained at 30° C. The contents were mechanically stirred under nitrogen gas at 30° C. for 48 hours.

(58) A sample of the polymer produced in the emulsion reaction was isolated for molar mass analysis using the method previously described. Characterisation of the molar mass of the polymer produced and the emulsion formed are presented in Table 2. The uv-vis spectral features and DLS analysis reported were obtained from 12 μL of crude emulsion in 8.5 ml of water. The fluorescence measurement of the emulsion was obtained from excitation at λ=380 nm. The optical properties of the PF8TAA emulsions are outlined in Table 3.

(59) TEM analysis of the PF8TAA nanoparticulate emulsions indicated regular distribution of spherical nanoparticles with average particle size (d.sub.n) of between 20-40 nm.

2.4. Syntheses of Poly[(9,9-dioctylfluorenyl-2,7-diyl)-co-bithiophene], PF8T2 [Poly(1-5)] emulsions

(60) The method described in Section 2.1. was replicated with boronic ester 1 (0.1151 g, 0.2 mmol) and dibromo 5 (0.0648 g, 0.2 mmol) monomers to synthesis an emulsion containing PF8T2 nanoparticles (reaction I in Table 2A). A sample of the polymer produced in the emulsion reaction was isolated for molar mass analysis using the method previously described. Characterisation of the molar mass of the polymer produced and the emulsion formed are presented in Table 2A. The uv-vis spectral features and DLS analysis reported were obtained from 12 μL of crude emulsion in 3 ml of water. The fluorescence measurement of the emulsion was obtained from excitation at λ=460 nm.

(61) A higher concentration of PF8T2 nanoparticles was successfully completed starting with a fourfold increase in amount of monomers and base in a twofold increase in xylene and surfactant. This equated to producing an emulsion which contained 8.2 mg/ml of conjugated polymeric material (reaction J in Table 2A). The optical properties of the PF8T2 nanoparticles are outlined in Table 2B.

(62) TEM analysis of the PF8T2 nanoparticulate emulsions indicated that regular rod-like structures were formed using this synthetic method. Rods up to 200 nm in length with aspect ratios of 4-5 were observed.

(63) TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2A Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling polymerizations of diboronic ester monomer (1) with dibromo monomers (2-5) under different emulsion conditions to produce PF8, PF8BT, PF8TAA and PF8T2.sup.a Polymer Molar Total Triton conc. .sup.b/ mass.sup.c/kg Particle size/nm Monomers, monomer/ Xylene X-102, mg mol.sup.−1 DLS.sup.d TEM.sup.e 1 + x mmol y/ml z/wt % ml.sup.−1 Mn Mw d.sub.z [PDI] d.sub.n l.sub.n, w.sub.n or d.sub.n A 2 0.4 2 5 PF8, 3.0 27.2 87.5 53[0.33] 21 76, 18 r B 2 0.8 2 5 PF8, 6.0 28.9 95.4 55[0.41] 26 74, 16 r C 2 1.2 4 10 PF8, 8.6 6.1, 7.3, .sup. 81[0.32].sup.f .sup. 22.sup.f 99, 23 r 48.1.sup.f 83.5.sup.f D 2 1.6 6 15 PF8, 12.9 39.4 88[0.22] 41 106, 25 r  11.1 E 3 0.4 2 5 PF8BT, 24.2 82.7 33[0.20] 21 23 s 2.0 F 3 0.8 2 5 PF8BT, 26.0 67.1 34[0.16] 23 22 s 4.0 G 4 0.4 2 5 PF8TAA, 18.5 49.8 41[0.33] 18 19 s 2.6 H 4 1.6 8 20 PF8TAA, 9.2 21.7 56[0.22] 33 41 s 9.5 I 5 0.4 2 5 PF8T2, 12.1 32.7 61[0.34] 23 82, 18 r 2.1 J 5 1.6 4 10 PF8T2, 12.7 36.1 88[0.18] 35 205, 52 r  8.2 .sup.aReaction conditions: equimolar quantities of monomers, 1 + x, dissolved in y ml xylene; 50 ml of z wt % Triton X-102 solution; 1 equivalent mmol of tetraethylammonium hydroxide; 2 mol % of (IPr*)PdCl.sub.2(TEA) catalyst (6); 30° C.; typically 24 hr, 48 hr for reactions, G & H. .sup.b Approx. conjugated polymer concentration of emulsion upon complete conversion. .sup.cDetermined by GPC in THF vs polystyrene standards. .sup.dDLS analysis of the z-average and number average particle (d.sub.z and d.sub.n) sizes of emulsion particles at 25° C.; polydispersity index (PDI) of particles presented. .sup.eTEM analysis of the number average length (l.sub.n) and number average width (w.sub.n) dimensions or the number average particle (d.sub.n) sizes of emulsion nanoparticles (d.sub.n), denoted with s: predominantly spherical or r: predominantly rod-like in shape. Averages determined from the measurement of at least 100 nanoparticles in each case. f Molar masses of resolved bimodal distribution of peaks observed in GPC trace of reaction C, presented in FIG. 2. Number average particle size (d.sub.n) distribution was also bimodal for this emulsion.

(64) TABLE-US-00003 TABLE 2B Optical properties of conjugated polymer nanoparticulate dispersions. Polymer Polymer conc..sup.a/ conc. in NP.sup.b/ λ.sub.abs.sup.c/ λ.sub.em.sup.d/ mg ml.sup.−1 mg ml.sup.−1 nm nm Φ.sup.e/% A PF8, 3.0 78 408, 441 21 442 B PF8, 6.0 155 409, 440 25 442 C PF8, 8.6 117 408, 440 22 441 D PF8, 11.1 104 407, 441 440 23 E PF8BT, 2.0 52 469 541 8.7 F PF8BT, 4.0 105 468 543 9.1 G PF8TAA, 2.6 69 387 434 3.4 H PF8TAA, 9.5 69 389 435 5.2 I PF8T2, 2.1 55 467 515, 557 2.8 J PF8T2, 8.2 111 503 518, 556 5.1 .sup.aApprox. conjugated polymer concentration of emulsion upon complete conversion. .sup.bConjugated polymer concentration in xylene in nanoparticles. .sup.cλ.sub.abs: wavelengths of absorption maxima of emulsions diluted in water. .sup.dλ.sub.em: wavelengths of emission maxima of emulsions diluted in water. .sup.ePhotoluminescence Quantum Yield (Φ). Results are average of at least 3 measurements. Errors of 10% associated with the values.

Example 3

Preparation of nanoparticles of polyfluorene (PFO) and Poly(9,9′-dioctylfluorene-co-benzothiadiazole) (PF8BT)

(65) General Miniemulson Procedure

(66) Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS, 250 mg) and deionised water (25 mL) were transferred to a Schlenk tube and the resultant solution was degassed by bubbling with argon for 20 minutes. Monomers A and B (see table 3) were dissolved in toluene (1 mL), to which hexadecane (78 μL) was also added, and this solution was degassed for 5 minutes in the same manner. The catalyst (see table 3) was added to the monomer solution, which was then transferred to the reaction vessel. The reaction mixture was emulsified by ultrasonication (Cole Parmer 750 W ultasonicator, with microtip, on 40% power) for 2 minutes while cooling with an ice bath. The Schlenk tube was resealed and the miniemulsion was heated to the reaction temperature (see table 3) and stirred for 16 hours. After cooling to room temperature, the cap of the reaction vessel was removed and the emulsion was stirred for 5 hours to remove the residual organic solvent. To remove residual SDS, the emulsion was transferred to dialysis tubing with a 25 KDa MWCO and dialysed against water for 7 days (changing with water twice daily).

(67) TABLE-US-00004 TABLE 3 Amounts and conditions for miniemulsion polymerisation reactions Monomer A Monomer B Catalyst Reaction Reaction Polymer (amount) (amount) (amount) temp. (° C.) 1 PFO 9,9-dioctyl-2,7- 2,7-di(boronic acid pinacol Pd(PPh.sub.3).sub.4 85 dibromofluorene ester)-9,9-dioctyl-fluorene (2.1 mg, (50.0 mg, 91.2 μmol) (58.6 mg, 91.2 μmol) 1.9 μmol) 2 F8BT 4,7-dibromo-2,1,3- 2,7-di(boronic acid pinacol Pd(PPh.sub.3).sub.4 85 benzothiadiazole ester)-9,9-dioctyl-fluorene (2.1 mg, (26.8 mg, 91.2 μmol) (58.6 mg, 91.2 μmol) 1.9 μmol) 3 PFO 9,9-dioctyl-2,7- 9,9-Dioctylfluorene-2,7- iPr*PdTEA 40 Dibromofluorene diboronic acid bis(1,3- (2.3 mg, (50.0 mg, 91.2 μmol) propanediol) ester 1.9 μmol) (50.9 mg, 91.2 μmol) 4 F8BT 4,7-dibromo-2,1,3- 9,9-Dioctylfluorene-2,7- iPr*PdTEA 40 benzothiadiazole diboronic acid bis(1,3- (2.3 mg, (26.8 mg, 91.2 μmol) propanediol) ester 1.9 μmol) (50.9 mg, 91.2 μmol)
Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) Analysis

(68) To prepare the nanoparticles for DLS analysis, 100 μL of the aqueous dispersion was diluted with 900 μL of deionised water and the particle size was measured using a Malvern Zetasizer Nano ZS.

(69) TABLE-US-00005 TABLE 4 DLS analysis of nanoparticle size Reaction Polymer D.sub.z/nm (PdI) 1 PFO 135 (0.20) 2 F8BT 125 (0.22) 3 PFO  76 (0.21) 4 F8BT  65 (0.16)
Gel Permeation Chromatography (GPC) Analysis

(70) The linear polymer that comprised the nanoparticles of each sample was isolated by evaporating 250 μL of the aqueous dispersion to dryness and then dissolving the residue in THF (1.5 mL). The insoluble surfactant (SDS) was removed from this solution by filtration through a 0.45 μm filter. Gel permeation chromatography was carried out at 35° C. using a Viscotek GPCmax VE2001 solvent/sample module with 2×PL gel 10 μm Mixed-B and PL gel 500A columns, a Viscotek VE3580 RI detector and a VE 3240 UV/VIS 50 multichannel detector. The flow rate was 1 mL/min and the system was calibrated with low polydispersity polystyrene standards in the range of 200 to 180×104 g/mol from Agilent. The analysed samples contained n-dodecane as a flow marker.

(71) TABLE-US-00006 TABLE 5 GPC analysis of polymer molecular weight within nanoparticles Reaction Polymer M.sub.n (KDa) M.sub.w (KDa) PdI DP 1 PFO 20.2 53.5 2.6 52 2 F8BT 10.3 25.3 2.5 20 3 PFO 5.8 16.0 2.8 15 4 F8BT 26.8 52.3 1.9 51
Photophysical Characterisation

(72) For measurement of the UV-vis absorption and photoluminescence spectra, samples of the as-prepared nanoparticle dispersions were diluted with deionised water until the optical density at λ.sub.abs was <1. UV-Vis absorption spectra of the nanoparticles dispersions were recorded on a Varian Cary 55 5000UV-Vis-NIR spectrophotometer at room temperature. Fluorescence spectra of the same were recorded on a Varian Cary Eclipse fluorimeter in either THF (linear polymer) or water (nanoparticles) at room temperature.

(73) The results are shown in FIG. 2.

Example 4

Synthesis of Green and Red-Emitting Conjugated Polymer Nanoparticles (CPNs) Based on PFO

(74) A series of conjugated polymer nanoparticles (CPNs) based on PFO with green (PFO-BT) and red emission (PFO-DBT) were synthesised by miniemulsion polymerisation via Suzuki coupling of 9,9-dioctyl-9H-fluorene-2,7-diboronic acid bis(pinacol) ester (A) with 9,9-dioctyl-2,7-dibromofluorene (B) and different loadings of 4,7-dibromo-2,1,3-benzothiadiazole (C) or 4,7-bis(2-bromo-5-thienyl)-2,1,3-benzothiadiazole (D) as acceptor units.

(75) ##STR00027##
General Miniemulsion Procedure

(76) In a Schlenk tube, sodium dodecyl sulfate (50 mg) was dissolved in deionised water (10 mL) under argon. The solution was degassed by bubbling with argon for 30 minutes. In a separate flask, monomer A (58.6 mg, 9.12×10.sup.−2 mmol), monomer B and monomer C or D (amounts in table 6) were dissolved in toluene (1 mL), to which hexadecane was added (78 μL) and the mixture was degassed by bubbling with argon for 5 min. After this time, tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium (0) (2.2 mg, 9.13×10.sup.−3 mmol) was added to the monomer mixture which was then injected to the SDS solution. To promote the miniemulsion, the Schlenk tube was taken to an ice bath and the mixture was sonicated using an ultrasonicator fitted with microtip (Cole Parmer 750 W ultrasonicator, 22% amplitude) for 2 minutes. The tube was resealed and then heated up to 72° C. Once reached this temperature, an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide 1M (365 μL) was added and the reaction mixture was stirred for 16 h. After cooling down to room temperature, the Schlenk tube was opened and the mixture was stirred for 5 h to remove the residual toluene. To remove SDS, 400 μL of the resulting miniemulsion was diluted with 1.6 mL of deionised water and Amberlite XAD-2 (20 mg) previously washed with water (2×2 mL) was added. The mixture was stirred for 2 hours at room temperature and the Amberlite XAD-2 was removed. Treatment with Amberlite XAD-2 was repeated until the mixture was shaken and no foam formation was longer observed.

(77) TABLE-US-00007 TABLE 6 Amount of monomers used in synthesis of PFO-BT and PFO-DBT CPNs. Acceptor unit loading Monomer B Monomer C Monomer D Polymer (%) (mass, moles) (mass, moles) (mass, moles) PFO-BT5 5 45 mg 2.7 mg — (8.21 × 10.sup.−2 mmol) (9.12 × 10.sup.−3 mmol) PFO-BT10 10 40 mg 5.4 mg —  (7.3 × 10.sup.−2 mmol) (1.82 × 10.sup.−2 mmol) PFO-DBT5 5 45 mg — 4.2 mg (8.21 × 10.sup.−2 mmol) (9.12 × 10.sup.−3 mmol) PFO-DBT10 10 40 mg — 8.4 mg  (7.3 × 10.sup.−2 mmol) (1.82 × 10.sup.−2 mmol)

(78) For the determination of particle size by DLS, 60 pt of each sample after removal of SDS were diluted with 1 mL of deionised water and the evaluation was carried out using a Malvern Zetasizer Nano ZS.

(79) The molecular weight of the polymers obtained from miniemulsion was determined by gel permeation chromatography in THF. The polymers were isolated by adding 750 μL of the crude miniemulsion in a 1.5 mL Eppendorf tube and filling the tube with methanol. The samples were centrifuged at 14,000 rpm for 10 min and decanted. The resulting precipitate for each sample was dried and dissolved in THF (1 mL), then filtered through a 0.45 μm filter. After addition of n-dodecane as flow marker the GPC determination was carried out using a Viscotek GPCmax VE2001 solvent/sample module with 2×PL gel 10 μm Mixed-B and PL gel 500A columns, a Viscotek VE3580 RI detector and a VE 3240 UV/VIS 50 multichannel detector. The flow rate was 1 mL/min and the system was calibrated with low polydispersity polystyrene standards in the range of 200 to 180×104 g/mol from Agilent.

(80) The molecular weight and particle size of PFO-BT and PFO-DBT nanoparticles are shown in table 7.

(81) TABLE-US-00008 TABLE 7 Molecular weight and particle size of green and red-emitting CPNs based on PFO. Polymer M.sub.n (KDa) M.sub.w (KDa) PDI d.sub.z (nm) PdI PFO-BT5 12,600 36,300 2.9 98 0.175 PFO-BT10 14,000 39,500 2.8 98 0.146 PFO-DBT5 12,100 32,400 2.7 95 0.191 PFO-DBT10 5,700 19,500 3.4 97 0.241

(82) The UV-vis absorption spectra of the aqueous dispersion of the CPNs were recorded using a Varian Cary 55 5000UV-Vis-NIR spectrophotometer. Fluorescence spectra of the same samples were recorded on a Varian Cary Eclipse fluorimeter at room temperature at an excitation wavelength of λ=390 nm and at λ=405 nm for green and red-emitting CPNs, respectively. The fluorescence quantum yield (QY) was determined using an integration sphere fitted to a Fluorolog 3-22-iHR (Horiba) spectrofluorometer configured with double excitation and emission monochromators with a cooled R928P photomultiplier tube operated in photon-counting mode used as detector. The photophysical properties are exhibited in table 8.

(83) TABLE-US-00009 TABLE 8 Photophysical properties of green and red-emitting CPNs based on PFO Absorption Fluorescence QY Polymer λ.sub.max (nm) λ.sub.max (nm) (%) QY (StD) PFO-BT5 380 534 41.13 3.18 PFO-BT10 379 534 55.87 0.95 PFO-DBT5 382 631 34.3 3.36 PFO-DBT10 380 633 17.57 1.05

Example 5

Synthesis of Poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl) (P3HT) nanoparticles

(84) P3HT nanoparticles were synthesised from an A-B type monomer functionalised with Br and a MIDA boronate via Suzuki coupling using miniemulsion polymerisation.

(85) ##STR00028##

(86) In a Schlenk tube, sodium dodecyl sulfate (50 mg) was dissolved in deionised water (10 mL) under argon. The solution was degassed by bubbling with argon for 30 minutes. In a separate Schlenk flask, monomer A (75 mg, 0.187 mmol) and hexadecane were added (78 μL). The flask containing the monomer was taken to the glovebox, then Pd.sub.2(dba).sub.3 (4.3 mg, 4.65×10.sup.−3 mol), SPhos (3.9 mg, 9.3×10.sup.−3 mol) and 1 mL of degassed toluene were added. The resulting solution was further degassed by bubbling with argon for 10 min. After this time, the monomer mixture was injected to the SDS solution under stirring. To promote the miniemulsion, the Schlenk tube was taken to an ice bath and the mixture was sonicated using an ultrasonicator fitted with microtip (Cole Parmer 750 W ultrasonicator, 22% amplitude) for 2 minutes. The tube was resealed and then heated up at 55 or 72° C. Once reached the desired temperature, an aqueous solution of potassium phosphate 1M (375 μL) was added and the reaction mixture was stirred for 20 h. After cooling down to room temperature, the Schlenk tube was opened and the mixture was stirred for 5 h to remove the residual toluene.

(87) For the determination of particle size by DLS, 60 μL of each crude sample were diluted with 1 mL of deionised water and the evaluation was carried out using a Malvern Zetasizer Nano ZS.

(88) The molecular weight of the polymers obtained from miniemulsion was determined by gel permeation chromatography in THF as described in Example 4.

(89) The UV-vis absorption spectra of the aqueous dispersion of the CPNs were recorded using a Varian Cary 55 5000UV-Vis-NIR spectrophotometer as mentioned in Example 4.

(90) The molecular weight, particle size and absorption maximum of P3HT nanoparticles are shown in table 9.

(91) TABLE-US-00010 TABLE 9 Characterisation of P3HT nanoparticles. Temperature Absorption (° C.) Mn (KDa) Mw (KDa) PDI dz (nm) PdI λ.sub.max (nm) 55 4,000 9,100 2.2 106 0.269 507 72 4,200 9,500 2.3 97 0.280 494

Example 6

Fabrication and Characterisation of Devices Based on Nanoparticle and Linear PBTTT

(92) The schematic diagram of a top-gate/bottom contact OFET is shown in FIG. 3.

(93) Top-gate/bottom contact devices were fabricated according to the following method. Glass substrates were cleaned by sequential rinsing with methanol, acetone and isopropanol, followed by drying under a flow of nitrogen. The glass substrates were then exposed to UV/ozone for 20 min. and oxygen plasma (60 W) for 2 min. 3 nm of Cr was thermally evaporated followed by evaporation of 40 nm of Au. Substrates were immersed for 24 h in ethanol solution of pentaflurobenzenethiol (PFBT) to form self-assembled monolayer (SAM) in which the molecules are chemisorbed to the gold by a thiolate link. The SAM-coated substrates were rinsed with solvent to remove physisorbed material before the nanoparticle PBTTT in water (10 mg/ml, ambient temperature) or linear PBTTT in 1,2-dichlorobenzene (7 mg/ml, heated to 100° C.) was spin-coated under ambient conditions or in the nitrogen glove box respectively, at 2000 rpm for 1 min. followed by annealing for 20 min. at 160° C. Next, poly(1,1,2,4,4,5,5,6,7,7-decafluoro-3-oxa-1,6-heptadiene), (200 μl, 9 wt % solution in perfluorotributylamine) was spin coated at 3000 rpm for 1 min. under ambient conditions. Substrates were then dried for 40 min. at 100° C. and Al top gate (70 nm) was thermally evaporated under high vacuum conditions (<10.sup.−6 Torr) on the substrate through a shadow mask. In these devices the channel length L and the channel width W were 60 μm and 1 mm respectively. The source and drain contacts were then isolated by isotropic argon plasma etching (100 W, 20 min.). The example transfer curves from these devices are presented in FIGS. 4 and 5.

(94) The calculated parameters for both linear and nanoparticle PBTTT transistors are presented in Table 10.

(95) TABLE-US-00011 TABLE 10 Mobility, on/off current ratio, and threshold voltage of nanoparticle and linear PBTTT transistors as extracted from the transfer curve in the saturation regime. μ/cm.sup.2 V.sup.−1 s.sup.−1 I.sub.ON/OFF Vt/V Nanoparticle PBTTT 2.82 × 10.sup.−3 10 −3.76 Linear PBTTT 1.86 × 10.sup.−2 28 3.22

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