Described herein are apparatus and methods for the continuous application of nanolaminated materials by electrodeposition.

Described herein are apparatus and methods for the continuous application of nanolaminated materials by electrodeposition.

A variety of homogeneous or layered hybrid nanostructures are fabricated by electric field-directed assembly of nanoelements. The nanoelements and the fabricated nanostructures can be conducting, semi-conducting, or insulating, or any combination thereof. Factors for enhancing the assembly process are identified, including optimization of the electric field and combined dielectrophoretic and electrophoretic forces to drive assembly. The fabrication methods are rapid and scalable. The resulting nanostructures have electrical and optical properties that render them highly useful in nanoscale electronics, optics, and biosensors.

A variety of homogeneous or layered hybrid nanostructures are fabricated by electric field-directed assembly of nanoelements. The nanoelements and the fabricated nanostructures can be conducting, semi-conducting, or insulating, or any combination thereof. Factors for enhancing the assembly process are identified, including optimization of the electric field and combined dielectrophoretic and electrophoretic forces to drive assembly. The fabrication methods are rapid and scalable. The resulting nanostructures have electrical and optical properties that render them highly useful in nanoscale electronics, optics, and biosensors.

A substrate includes a final silver-plated surface protected against silver tarnishing by a protective coat having a thickness between 1 nm and 200 nm, the protective coat includes a first coat of Al.sub.2O.sub.3 deposited on said final silver-plated surface and having a thickness between 0.5 nm and 100 nm, and on the first coat of Al.sub.2O.sub.3, a second coat of TiO.sub.2 having a thickness between 0.5 nm and 100 nm, the substrate including a coat of a silver and copper alloy comprising between 0.1% and 10% by weight of copper with respect to the total weight of the alloy, forming said final silver-plated surface, said coat of a silver and copper alloy having a thickness between 1000 nm and 3000 nm. Embodiments also relate to a method for manufacturing such a substrate.

A printed circuit board includes an insulating layer, a circuit pattern on the insulating layer, and a surface treatment layer on the circuit pattern. The surface treatment layer includes a bottom surface having a width wider than a width of a top surface of the circuit pattern.

A printed circuit board includes an insulating layer, a circuit pattern on the insulating layer, and a surface treatment layer on the circuit pattern. The surface treatment layer includes a bottom surface having a width wider than a width of a top surface of the circuit pattern.

Disclosed herein are systems and methods for processing ash. For example, in certain embodiments, the method comprises dissolving at least a portion of ash in acid. In some embodiments, the acid is produced in a reactor. In some embodiments, dissolving at least a portion of ash in acid produces refined silica (SiO.sub.2) (e.g., amorphous silica, substantially pure silica, and/or a substantial amount of silica). According to certain embodiments, the ash can be further processed (e.g., using electro winning, pH-based precipitation, and/or electrorefining) to obtain other components instead of or in addition to refined silica.

Disclosed herein are systems and methods for processing ash. For example, in certain embodiments, the method comprises dissolving at least a portion of ash in acid. In some embodiments, the acid is produced in a reactor. In some embodiments, dissolving at least a portion of ash in acid produces refined silica (SiO.sub.2) (e.g., amorphous silica, substantially pure silica, and/or a substantial amount of silica). According to certain embodiments, the ash can be further processed (e.g., using electro winning, pH-based precipitation, and/or electrorefining) to obtain other components instead of or in addition to refined silica.

The present disclosure provides methods for determining concentration of various trace metal ions in aqueous solutions, such as gold plating solutions. At a particular fixed reduction potential, the cathodic current can suddenly increase in magnitude after a certain period of time (e.g., an incubation time) passes in the presence of a trace metal ion (e.g., Tl(I)), where the incubation time is inversely proportional to the concentration of trace metal in the electrolyte. The concentration of the trace metal can be calculated after measuring the incubation time and comparing it against a calibration curve.