A catalyst includes at least one of a porous or particulate material having a plurality of active sites that attract reactants thereto. The active sites have a spacing within a predetermined range so as to enable a chemical reaction to be enhanced through use of potential energy of intermolecular adsorption compression or intramolecular adsorption stretching of one or more reactants to decrease the activation energy barrier or by adsorption compression of one or more reaction products leading to an increased desorption rate for the reaction product molecule and thereby an increased overall rate of reaction.

An abnormality of a state in a system between a combustion tube and a detector can be detected without increasing device cost.

An instrument for elemental analysis includes a combustion tube (2) that has a sample injection port (3) with an open top and is for combusting a liquid sample in the inside, a sample injection mechanism (6) having a nozzle (10) and a slider (8), the nozzle (10) being for injecting a sample into the combustion tube, and the slider (8) being configured to slide between a first position and a second position above the combustion tube (2), the sample injection mechanism (6) being configured so that the sample injection port (3) of the combustion tube (2) is sealed in a state where the slider (8) is positioned at the first position, and the sample injection port (3) is unsealed and the nozzle (10) is positioned above the sample injection port (3) in a state where the slider (8) is positioned at the second position, a carrier gas supply flow path (26) communicating with the inside of the combustion tube (2) to supply carrier gas into the combustion tube (2), a pressure sensor (30) for detecting pressure in the carrier gas supply flow path (26), a detector (22) that detects a component in sample gas flowing out of the combustion tube (2), and an arithmetic part (44) configured to determine an abnormality degree of a state in a system between the combustion tube and the detector based on a change in pressure, which is detected by the pressure sensor (30), at the time when the slider (8) of the sample injection mechanism (6) slides from the first position to the second position.

A gas sensor system is equipped with a first gas detection unit, and a second gas detection unit. The first and second gas detection units include a gas introduction port for introducing a gas to be measured, a measurement chamber communicating with the gas introduction port, a conversion medium (NH.sub.3 oxidation catalyst) arranged between the gas introduction port and the measurement chamber, and which converts a portion of a first gas type into a second gas type, and a detection device that detects the second gas type. A ratio of diffusion resistances of the first gas detection unit and the second gas detection unit is greater than or equal to 0.71 and less than or equal to 1.4.

A gas sensor system is equipped with a first gas detection unit, and a second gas detection unit. The first and second gas detection units include a gas introduction port for introducing a gas to be measured, a measurement chamber communicating with the gas introduction port, a conversion medium (NH.sub.3 oxidation catalyst) arranged between the gas introduction port and the measurement chamber, and which converts a portion of a first gas type into a second gas type, and a detection device that detects the second gas type. A ratio of diffusion resistances of the first gas detection unit and the second gas detection unit is greater than or equal to 0.71 and less than or equal to 1.4.

There are provided, inter alia, methods for reacting an enzyme and its substrate, methods for purifying a protein and an enzyme reactor and its use thereof.

There are provided, inter alia, methods for reacting an enzyme and its substrate, methods for purifying a protein and an enzyme reactor and its use thereof.

A system and method for thermal cracking of crude oil is provided. The system includes a plurality of communicatively coupled components configured to support thermal cracking of crude oil and performs a method including a continuous, industrial-sized thermal cracking process used to convert heavy crude oil or extra-heavy crude oil into lighter crude oil, using a liquid catalyst to prevent coke formation and promote alkylation reactions.

A system and method for thermal cracking of crude oil is provided. The system includes a plurality of communicatively coupled components configured to support thermal cracking of crude oil and performs a method including a continuous, industrial-sized thermal cracking process used to convert heavy crude oil or extra-heavy crude oil into lighter crude oil, using a liquid catalyst to prevent coke formation and promote alkylation reactions.

A method of testing a catalyst in a reactor comprises supplying a feedstock into an upstream end of the reactor and arranging an annular basket within the reactor at a downstream position in the reactor, the annular basket having a central aperture for receiving the flow of feedstock and plurality of stacked layers separated by fluid permeable material, the plurality of stacked layers including a layer of grading material positioned upstream of a layer containing a primary catalyst to be tested for a chemical process. The grading material is adapted to filter out contaminants within the feedstock and to thereby protect the primary catalyst within the basket. Embodiments and methods can utilize layers comprising a first layer containing the primary catalyst, a second layer containing a hydrometallization catalyst and a third layer containing grading material having solid trap particles with reduced catalytic activity.

A gas sensor system is equipped with a first gas detection unit, and a second gas detection unit. The first and second gas detection units include a gas introduction port for introducing a gas to be measured, a measurement chamber communicating with the gas introduction port, a conversion medium (NH.sub.3 oxidation catalyst) arranged between the gas introduction port and the measurement chamber, and which converts a portion of a first gas type into a second gas type, and a detection device that detects the second gas type. A ratio of diffusion resistances of the first gas detection unit and the second gas detection unit is greater than or equal to 0.71 and less than or equal to 1.4.