A system for sensing analyte in at least partly translucent material, including one or more radiation sources configured for successively providing radiation at a first and a second wavelength, respectively, two or more waveguides for simultaneously transmitting the radiation at each wavelength provided by the radiation source, a first waveguide being a reference waveguide and a second being a sensing waveguide; and measuring means for measuring a phase difference between the radiation waves from the reference waveguide and the measuring waveguide, resp. The present method can be used for measuring contaminants such as Fe, Sn, and/or Pb in oil related products, such as carburant or lubricant.

A method and a device allow measurement of the pH value of a solution. The method includes illuminating a solution containing a pH indicator and a pH changer with light emitted from a light emitting element, receiving light transmitted through the solution with a light receiving element, measuring absorbance with monochromatic light selectively from the received transmitted light, and calculating a pH value corresponding to the measured absorbance based on a predefined absorbance table. The device includes an illuminator that illuminates a solution containing a pH indicator and a pH changer with light emitted from a light emitting element, a light receiver that receives light transmitted through the solution, a measurer that measures absorbance with light with a wavelength of monochromatic light selectively from the received transmitted light, and a calculator that calculates a pH value corresponding to the absorbance measured by the measurer based on a predefined absorbance table.

Systems and methods for representing internal defects of an object to determine defect detectability using a multi-scan computed tomography (CT) approach are disclosed. A defect-free object may be scanned using a CT machine. In one or more separate scans, phantom defects may be imaged and the resulting projections combined and reconstructed to represent internal defects. The air-normalized intensities of the object and the phantom defect may be used to represent voids and inclusions. Subtraction of materials may be represented by the quotient of the air-normalized intensities thereof, and the addition of materials may be represented by the product of the air-normalized intensities thereof. A void may be represented by subtracting a phantom defect scan from the object scan. An inclusion may be represented by creating a void, scanning an additional phantom defect, and adding the additional phantom defect in the volume created by the void.

Backscatter imaging systems and methods that involve moving an emitter and a broad spectrum detector in helical motion along a medium being imaged while the emitter emits substantially monochromatic X-rays and/or gamma rays, and the broad spectrum detector acquires intensity measurement of photons backscattered from the medium. The intensity measurements are transformed into three-dimensional image data of the medium corresponding to density variations.

A method for characterizing the catalyst structure in a fuel cell, and in particular the transmission X-ray absorption measurements (XAS), in which a novel fuel cell design is used. The fuel cell comprises a first (planar) electrode having a first catalyst, a second (planar) electrode having a second catalyst, and an electrolyte membrane disposed between the electrodes and having a layer thickness l.sub.m, wherein the first electrode comprises at least one catalyst-free circular region having a radius R1.sup.max. Contrary to what has been customary until now, the second electrode of the fuel cell according to the invention likewise comprises a catalyst-free circular region having a radius R.sub.2<R.sub.1.sup.max. Advantageously, 0.5 l.sub.m≦[R.sub.1.sup.max−R.sub.2]≦2 l.sub.m applies. Simulations prove that during these examinations, which capture only a narrow catalyst-containing sample ring, the local current density across the surface can be kept essentially constant, and therefore the captured catalyst particles are considerably more representative of the entire catalyst layer than in previously examinations using fuel cells in which the sample used has a completely circular measurement geometry.

A method of non-destructive detection of surface and near surface abnormalities in a metallic product. The method comprises positioning a sample having a surface under a source of an incident radiation. The surface of the sample is then irradiated with the incident radiation from the source. A scattered radiation is detected and a radiation pattern from the detected scattered radiation is produced. Said radiation pattern is then analysed and the output indicative of the scattered radiation from the sample is produced. Said produced output is then compared with a threshold value, the threshold value indicative of a maximum acceptable detected surface abnormality. Finally, the presence of a surface abnormality is identified when the output exceeds the threshold value.

This disclosure relates to an apparatus and methods for applying X-ray reflectometry (XRR) in characterizing three dimensional nanostructures supported on a flat substrate with a miniscule sampling area and a thickness in nanometers. In particular, this disclosure is targeted for addressing the difficulties encountered when XRR is applied to samples with intricate nanostructures along all three directions, e.g. arrays of nanostructured poles or shafts. Convergent X-ray with long wavelength, greater than that from a copper anode of 0.154 nm and less than twice of the characteristic dimensions along the film thickness direction, is preferably used with appropriate collimations on both incident and detection arms to enable the XRR for measurements of samples with limited sample area and scattering volumes. In one embodiment, the incident angle of the long-wavelength focused X-ray is ≥24°, and the sample area is ≤25 μm×25 μm.

A method of non-destructive detection of surface and near surface abnormalities in a metallic product. The method comprises positioning a sample having a surface under a source of an incident radiation. The surface of the sample is then irradiated with the incident radiation from the source. A scattered radiation is detected and a radiation pattern from the detected scattered radiation is produced. Said radiation pattern is then analysed and the output indicative of the scattered radiation from the sample is produced. Said produced output is then compared with a threshold value, the threshold value indicative of a maximum acceptable detected surface abnormality. Finally, the presence of a surface abnormality is identified when the output exceeds the threshold value.

The present invention relates to a hard X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (HAXPES) system comprising an X-ray tube, an X-ray monochromator, and a sample. The X-ray tube provides a beam of photons, which via the X-ray monochromator is directed through the system so as to excite electrons from the illuminated sample. The X-ray tube is connected to a monochromator vacuum chamber in which the X-ray monochromator is configured to monochromatize and focus the beam onto the sample. The monochromator vacuum chamber is connected to an analysis vacuum chamber, the illuminated sample being mounted inside the analysis vacuum chamber and the analysis vacuum chamber being connected to an electron energy analyser. The electron energy analyser is mounted onto the analysis vacuum chamber. Further, the beam of photons provided from the X-ray tube is divergent and has an energy above 6 keV. The X-ray monochromator also comprises a curved optical element arranged to both monochromatize and focus the diverging beam of photons.

The present invention relates to a hard X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (HAXPES) system comprising an X-ray tube, an X-ray monochromator, and a sample. The X-ray tube provides a beam of photons, which via the X-ray monochromator is directed through the system so as to excite electrons from the illuminated sample. The X-ray tube is connected to a monochromator vacuum chamber in which the X-ray monochromator is configured to monochromatize and focus the beam onto the sample. The monochromator vacuum chamber is connected to an analysis vacuum chamber, the illuminated sample being mounted inside the analysis vacuum chamber and the analysis vacuum chamber being connected to an electron energy analyser. The electron energy analyser is mounted onto the analysis vacuum chamber.

Further, the beam of photons provided from the X-ray tube is divergent and has an energy above 6 keV. The X-ray monochromator also comprises a curved optical element arranged to both monochromatize and focus the diverging beam of photons.