An electron emission device includes a substrate and an electron emission layer. The electron emission layer is provided above the substrate, and is provided with an opening. The electron emission layer has an edge defining the opening and is configured to emit electrons from the edge when the edge is irradiated with light.

Embodiments relate to methods of manufacturing and operating nano-scale energy converters and electric power generators. The nano-scale energy converters include two electrodes separated a predetermined distance. The first electrode is manufactured to have a first work function value. The second electrode is manufactured to have a second work function value different from the first work function value. A cavity is formed between the first and second electrodes, and a nanofluid is disposed in the cavity. The nanofluid includes a plurality of nanoparticles, with the nanoparticles having a third work function value that is greater than the first and second work function values. The relationship of the work function values of the nanoparticles to the work function values of the electrodes optimizes transfer of electrons to the nanoparticles through Brownian motion and electron hopping.

Embodiments relate to methods of manufacturing and operating nano-scale energy converters and electric power generators. The nano-scale energy converters include two electrodes separated a predetermined distance. The first electrode is manufactured to have a first work function value. The second electrode is manufactured to have a second work function value different from the first work function value. A cavity is formed between the first and second electrodes, and a nanofluid is disposed in the cavity. The nanofluid includes a plurality of nanoparticles, with the nanoparticles having a third work function value that is greater than the first and second work function values. The relationship of the work function values of the nanoparticles to the work function values of the electrodes optimizes transfer of electrons to the nanoparticles through Brownian motion and electron hopping.

Embodiments relate to methods of manufacturing and operating nano-scale energy converters and electric power generators. The nano-scale energy converters include two electrodes separated a predetermined distance. The first electrode is manufactured to have a first work function value. The second electrode is manufactured to have a second work function value different from the first work function value. A cavity is formed between the first and second electrodes, and a nanofluid is disposed in the cavity. The nanofluid includes a plurality of nanoparticles.

Embodiments relate to methods of manufacturing and operating nano-scale energy converters and electric power generators. The nano-scale energy converters include two electrodes separated a predetermined distance. The first electrode is manufactured to have a first work function value. The second electrode is manufactured to have a second work function value different from the first work function value. A cavity is formed between the first and second electrodes, and a nanofluid is disposed in the cavity. The nanofluid includes a plurality of nanoparticles.

Embodiments relate to an apparatus for nano-scale energy converters and electric power generators. The apparatus include two electrodes with a cavity formed therebetween. The first electrode is an emitter electrode that includes a first base material with a first work function value. A second material is deposited on the first base material to modify the first work function value to a second work function value. The second electrode is a collector electrode that includes a second base material with a third work function value. A fourth material is deposited on the second base material to modify the third work function value to a fourth work function value. The emitter and collector electrodes are designed such that the second work function value is greater than the fourth work function value.

Embodiments relate to an apparatus for nano-scale energy converters and electric power generators. The apparatus include two electrodes with a cavity formed therebetween. The first electrode is an emitter electrode that includes a first base material with a first work function value. A second material is deposited on the first base material to modify the first work function value to a second work function value. The second electrode is a collector electrode that includes a second base material with a third work function value. A fourth material is deposited on the second base material to modify the third work function value to a fourth work function value. The emitter and collector electrodes are designed such that the second work function value is greater than the fourth work function value.

Embodiments relate to an apparatus for nano-scale energy converters and electric power generators. The apparatus include two electrodes with a cavity formed therebetween. The first electrode is an emitter electrode that includes a first base material with a first work function value. A second material is deposited on the first base material to modify the first work function value to a second work function value. The second electrode is a collector electrode that includes a second base material with a third work function value. A fourth material is deposited on the second base material to modify the third work function value to a fourth work function value. The emitter and collector electrodes are designed such that the second work function value is greater than the fourth work function value.

Embodiments relate to an apparatus for nano-scale energy converters and electric power generators. The apparatus include two electrodes with a cavity formed therebetween. The first electrode is an emitter electrode that includes a first base material with a first work function value. A second material is deposited on the first base material to modify the first work function value to a second work function value. The second electrode is a collector electrode that includes a second base material with a third work function value. A fourth material is deposited on the second base material to modify the third work function value to a fourth work function value. The emitter and collector electrodes are designed such that the second work function value is greater than the fourth work function value.

Embodiments relate to methods of manufacturing and operating nano-scale energy converters and electric power generators. The nano-scale energy converters include two electrodes separated a predetermined distance. The first electrode is manufactured to have a first work function value. The second electrode is manufactured to have a second work function value different from the first work function value. A cavity is formed between the first and second electrodes, and a nanofluid is disposed in the cavity. The nanofluid includes a plurality of nanoparticles, with the nanoparticles having a third work function value that is greater than the first and second work function values. The relationship of the work function values of the nanoparticles to the work function values of the electrodes optimizes transfer of electrons to the nanoparticles through Brownian motion and electron hopping.