ADHESIVE INTERLAYER FOR BATTERY ELECTRODE THROUGH DRY MANUFACTURING

Abstract

A dry electrode manufacturing process is employed for low cost battery through a dry mixing and formation process. A thermal activation renders the dry fabricated electrode comparable to conventional slurry casted electrodes. The dry electrode mixture results from a combination of a plurality of types of constituent particles, including at least an active charge material and a binder, and typically a conductive material such as carbon. The process heats the deposited mixture to a moderate temperature for activating the binder for adhering the mixture to the substrate, and compresses the deposited mixture to a thickness for achieving an electrical sufficiency of the compressed, deposited mixture as a charge material in a lithium-ion battery. In order to increase the bonding between the current collector and charge materials, an adhesive interlayer is applied through dry printing.

Claims

1. A method of forming a battery electrode, comprising: providing a planar current collector adapted for formation into a battery; transporting the planar current collector under an electrostatic spray nozzle; depositing an adhesion interlayer onto the current collector from the electrostatic spray nozzle; and depositing a charge material layer onto the adhesion interlayer from a successive electrostatic spray nozzle, the adhesion interlayer for increasing an adhesion strength between the charge material layer and the current collector.

2. The method of claim 1 wherein depositing the adhesion interlayer further includes forming coverage regions on the current collector.

3. The method of claim 1 wherein depositing the adhesion interlayer forms a porous surface between the current collector and the charge material layer, the porous surface for transporting electric charge.

4. The method of claim 2 wherein depositing the interlayer includes spraying dry particles of an adhesion substance driven by a carrier gas for bombardment against the current collector.

5. The method of claim 1 further comprising dry mixing the charge material layer via bead or ball milling.

6. The method of claim 1 wherein the adhesion interlayer includes a binder substance, the binder substance included in a portion of the charge material layer.

7. The method of claim 1 further comprising calendaring the adhesion interlayer and deposited charge material layer with a roller for achieving the predetermined thickness.

8. The method of claim 1 wherein spraying the adhesion interlayer further comprises applying particles having a size up to 1 um in diameter.

9. The method of claim 1 further comprising applying a voltage to the current collector for achieving a voltage difference with the spray nozzle to bond the particles of the adhesion interlayer to the current collector.

10. The method of claim 1 wherein the current collector is a copper sheet for forming an anode of the battery.

11. The method of claim 10 wherein the copper sheet has a thickness of 10 um, the adhesion interlayer has a thickness of around or less than 1 um, and the charge material layer has a thickness in a range between 2-500 um, and the electrostatic spraying of the charge material is performed at an areal loading in a range between 2 and 50 mg cm.sup.2.

12. The method of claim 2 wherein the charge material layer includes graphite and the adhesion interlayer includes at least one of PVDF, CMS, SBR, PTFE, PAA and PEO.

13. The method of claim 1 further comprising depositing one or more charge material layers on top of the adhesion interlayer.

14. The method of claim 4 wherein electrostatic spraying further comprises spraying with a carrier gas at a pressure between 0.5 and 1.5 psi and a voltage potential of 25 KV.

15. In a current collector for a battery, the current collector defined by a conductive planar material having conductive properties for transporting electric charge between cathode and anode charge materials in a battery, a method of forming an anode for a lithium-ion battery, comprising: providing a planar copper sheet as an anode current collector layer adapted for formation into a battery; transporting the planar current collector under a first electrostatic spray nozzle; depositing an adhesion interlayer of PVDF (polyvinylidene fluoride) onto the current collector from the first electrostatic spray nozzle, further comprising forcing a 0.5-1.5 psi airflow and a 15 kv potential to the first electrostatic spray nozzle, including forming the PVDF into a powder having 1 um sized particles forming coverage regions on the anode current collector defined by areas covered by the PVDF; and depositing a charge material layer onto the adhesion interlayer from a second electrostatic spray nozzle, the adhesion interlayer for increasing an adhesion strength between the charge material layer and the current collector by contacting the anode current collector between the coverage regions.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0014] The foregoing and other objects, features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following description of particular embodiments of the invention, as illustrated in the accompanying drawings in which like reference characters refer to the same parts throughout the different views. The drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placed upon illustrating the principles of the invention.

[0015] FIG. 1 is a context diagram of a battery incorporating the dry coated substrate as disclosed herein;

[0016] FIG. 2 is a diagram of a deposition/dry spray apparatus for forming the substrate as in FIG. 1;

[0017] FIG. 3 is a diagram of mold based substrate formation in the approach of FIG. 2;

[0018] FIG. 4a shows a continuous roller mold configuration of the apparatus of FIG. 3;

[0019] FIGS. 4b and 4c show a resulting electrode from the configuration of FIG. 4a;

[0020] FIG. 5 shows heated rollers for activating the binder in the substrate and electrode as in FIGS. 2-4b;

[0021] FIGS. 6a-6f show electrical characteristics of the dry electrode mixture;

[0022] FIGS. 7a-c show chemical properties of the dry electrode mixture;

[0023] FIG. 8 shows an apparatus as in FIG. 2 which may be employed for adding the adhesion interlayer onto the substrate prior to depositing the charge material;

[0024] FIGS. 9A-9D show a stepwise progression of the adhesion interlayer and charge material onto the substrate using the apparatus of FIG. 8;

[0025] FIG. 10 shows a top view of a spray pattern of the adhesion interlayer using the spray apparatus of FIG. 8;

[0026] FIG. 11 shows a side view of the resulting layered structure deposited by the apparatus of FIG. 8; and

[0027] FIG. 12 shows a perspective view of the layered structure produced by the apparatus of FIG. 8.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0028] The figures and discussion below depict an example approach for forming the electrode material in a rechargeable battery by spraying, depositing or applying the electrode material to the substrate in a dry powder form, such as to an anode or cathode current collector. In the example configuration, an application of cathode material such as Lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO.sub.2) as the active charge material is shown in conjunction with binder and conductive materials (typically carbon) in various ratios by selective, dynamic combinations of dry powder formations.

[0029] FIG. 1 is a context diagram of a battery incorporating the dry electrode mixture applied to a substrate as disclosed herein, and depicts a battery structure suitable for use with configurations discussed below. Referring to FIG. 1, the physical structure of a cell 100 is a cylinder encapsulation of a rolled sheets defining the anode (negative electrode) 160 and the cathode (positive electrode) 162. In the configurations herein, the dry electrode mixture is applied to a substrate such as copper or aluminum for forming the anode 160 and cathode 162. Typically, the planar substrate is rolled into a cylindrical shape (cell), and assembled into a configuration of cells connected to achieve the desired voltage and current characteristics, however the approach disclosed herein is applicable to any suitable anode or cathode substrate, such as prismatic cells which retain a planar shape.

[0030] Primary functional parts of the lithium-ion battery are the anode 160, cathode, 162 electrolyte, and separator 172. The most commercially popular anode 160 (negative) electrode material contains graphite, carbon and a polymer binder, coated on copper foil. The cathode 162 (positive) electrode contains cathode material, carbon, and PVDF binder, coated on aluminum foil. The cathode 162 material is generally one of three kinds of materials: a layered oxide (such as lithium cobalt oxide or lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide), a polyanion (such as lithium iron phosphate), or a spinel (such as lithium manganese oxide). The outside metal casing defines the negative terminal 161, coupled to the anode tab 161, and the top cap 163 connects to the cathode tab 163. A gasket 174 and bottom insulator 176 maintains electrical separation between the polarized components. Configurations discussed below describe formation of the anode 160 and cathode 162 by application of the dry electrode mixture to a planer substrate.

[0031] FIG. 2 is a diagram of a deposition/dry spray apparatus for forming the electrodes as in FIG. 1. Referring to FIGS. 1 and 2, a powder dispensing unit 300 includes a plurality of hoppers 310-1 . . . 310-4 (310 generally). Each of the hoppers 310 is adapted for containing a volume 318 of a type of powder or a mixture of particles in the form of constituent particles that define a charge material, conductive additive, and binder for inclusion in the battery. Metering valves 312-1 . . . 312-4 (312 generally) on each hopper 310 are responsive to a controller 314 for dispensing precise amounts of each of the plurality of types of constituent particles (powder). A spray gun 320 includes a fluidizing chamber 322 and may include a connection 324 to a carrier gas 326. The fluidizing chamber 322 has a length sufficient to evenly distribute the constituent particles into a uniform mixture for deposition on a substrate 350, and operates as a homogenizing chamber for evenly dispersing the particles for a uniform ratio of deposited materials. Based on a predetermined distribution, provided by a control program or similar logic 316, the controller 314 actuates the metering valves 312 to achieve a mixture ratio of the constituent particles, and may dynamically adjust the mixture ration for depositing or painting a layered structure of differing mixture ratios onto the substrate 350, discussed further below. The different powder types can be mixed together first and then sprayed on the current collector. The electrode material resulting from the mixture of the constituent particles may be applied to the substrate 350 by any suitable mechanism, such as electrostatic spray or deposition into a mold to form a molded structure with enhanced thickness, both described below. The term deposited is directed to any such application of the dry powder electrode mixture to a substrate 350 surface for forming an electrode in the manufactured battery.

[0032] During battery electrode manufacturing, the disclosed method of depositing the electrode material on a planar electrode (substrate 350) includes depositing, onto the substrate 350, a dry electrode mixture 354 resulting from a fluidized combination of a plurality of types of constituent particles, in which the particle types in the electrode material include at least an active charge material, conductive additive and a binder. Deposition may be achieved by pressurized carrier gas 326 metered through valve 324, gravity driven dispersant, electrostatic spray with or without a carrier gas, or other suitable process. A particle spray 328 carries the fluidized, mixed constituent particles onto the substrate 350. The substrate 350 is intended to be any suitable material for forming the anode or cathode in the manufactured battery, and is expected to be a conductive sheet material such as aluminum or copper adapted for use as a current collector. Following deposition, the substrate and the deposited mixture 352 are heated to activate the binder for adhering the mixture to the substrate and providing firmness or structure for maintain a thickness 356 of the deposited mixture 352. Following deposition, a system of rollers or other suitable mechanism compresses the deposited mixture 352 to a thickness 356 for achieving an electrical sufficiency of the compressed, deposited mixture as an electrode in a battery.

[0033] An example of the constituent particles used for dry powder based electrodes, the mixture 352 includes active (90% by weight), conductive (5% by weight), and binding material (5% by weight). In a particular configuration, Lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO.sub.2, or simply LCO) was used as the active material, Super C65 Carbon (C65) as the conductive material, and PVDF for the binding material.

[0034] One particular approach may employ an electrostatic spraying system to deposit dry electrode particles to the substrate. The process is commonly known as dry painting or electrostatic spraying. It consists of a powder pick-up and dispensing unit (such as a Venturi pump) and an electrostatic spraying gun. A spraying gun is used to charge the fluidized dry particles. After being charged, the dry particles will be drawn to the ground current collector and deposited. A hot roller is used to control the electrode thickness and density in place of the doctor blade typically used to control the thickness of a slurry-cast electrode. Thermal activation of the binding material is quickly achieved using the hot roller, which takes the place of the oven needed to evaporate solvent in a slurry-cast electrode.

[0035] FIG. 3 is a diagram of mold based electrode manufacturing. In a particular configuration, the particle is deposited onto the flat planer surface defined by the substrate 350. In another configuration, an arrangement of molds 362 provides added structure to the deposited mixture 352. Referring to FIGS. 2 and 3, formation of the deposited mixture 352 includes dispensing the dry electrode mixture onto the mold 360, in which the mold 360 has an array of receptacles 362, such that each receptacle 362 defines a shape and a spacing from adjacent receptacles to form molded structures 364 on the substrate. Following deposition, the process inverts the mold 360 onto the or just above/or adjacent to substrate 350, and releases the molded structures 364 onto the substrate 350 for forming a deposition pattern 366 on the substrate 350 corresponding to the array. In the example configuration, the mold 360 is constructed of aluminum or stainless steel, and/or employs a coating having a low surface energy for facilitating release. Particular configurations may add a release coating using a material having low surface energy material, such as hydrophobic materials. Boron nitride is a particularly beneficial selection due to heat resistance.

[0036] In the example configuration, the molded structures 364 may exhibit a layered structure 370 resulting from multiple passes and dynamic adjustment of the fluidized combination of a plurality of types of constituent particles and mixture from adjustment of the metering valves 312. Resulting operation deposits a plurality of layers 372-1-372-5 (372 generally) in the receptacles 362, such that each layer 372 is defined by a predetermined ratio of the types of constituent particles to define the molded structures 364 having a composition defined by the layers 370. Generally, the constituent and mixture particles disposed from the hoppers 310 including at least a binder, a conductor and a charge material as the types of constituent particles. The predetermined ratio at each layer 372 is achieved by metering a dispensed quantity of particles from each of the hoppers 310 according to the predetermined ratio. For example, the dry particle mixture 354 may be adjusted such that the top and bottom layer 372-1 and 372-5 contain the most binder, such as 15% binder with 5% conductive and 80% charge material, a middle layer 372-3 rich in charge material (5% binder, 5% conductive and 90% charge material), and the layers flanking the middle layer (372-2, 372-4) containing a moderate amount (10% binder), to allow enhanced structural integrity from added binder at the top and bottom, thus permitting greater thickness 356 in the molded structure 364.

[0037] The dry electrode mixture containing the constituent particles may be defined from a variety of materials. In a particular configuration, the dry electrode mixture includes active materials, binder and conductive additive, such that the active materials may be selected from the group consisting of LiCoO.sub.2, LiNixMnyCozO.sub.2, Li.sub.2Mn.sub.2O.sub.4, LiNiCoAlO.sub.2, LiFePO.sub.4, and Li.sub.4Ti.sub.5O.sub.12, the binder selected from the group consisting of PVDF, and CMC and other polymers, and the conductive additive selected from the group consisting of carbon powder, nanotube, nanowire, and graphene.

[0038] It is expected that some overspray may occur around the molds and result in excess particles on the mold outside the receptacles 362. Accordingly, deposition may include disposing a scraper across a top surface of the mold, the top surface receiving overspray particles from the receptacles 362 and the disposed scraper removing the overspray particles from the top surface.

[0039] FIG. 4a shows a continuous roller mold configuration of the apparatus of FIG. 3. A circular roller 380 implementation of the mold 360 allows a continuous additive and release cycle of the receptacles, amenable to additive manufacturing techniques for the battery electrode manufacturing. Referring to FIGS. 2-4a, the mold 380 is a cylindrical roller adapted to receive the dispensed dry electrode 354 mixture into the receptacles 362 and invert the receptacles 362 by rotation to a release position onto the substrate 350, such that the substrate 350 is operable for conveyance at a speed corresponding to the rotation. Also, there may be multiple particle sprays 328, 328 at various positions around the circular mold 380. An arrangement of rollers, typically top 382 and bottom 384 heated rollers, compresses the molded structures from an initial thickness 356 to a compressed thickness 356.

[0040] A structure including layers 372 typically involves depositing the dry electrode mixture in a plurality of passes, such that each pass deposits a layer 372, and repeating the depositions until the deposited mixture achieves a predetermined thickness 356 and layer arrangement. The controller 314 may dynamically adjust a combination ratio of the deposited mixture 352 by setting the metering valves 312. The combination ratio, as directed by control logic 316 from the controller 314, defines, for each layer, a percentage of each of the types of the plurality of types of particles. The control logic 316 receives input for identifying a plurality of the types of constituent particles 318 in each of the hoppers 310, and meters a quantity of each of the plurality of types based on the predetermined combination ratio from the control logic 316. The spray gun 320 generates a fluidized mixture of the constituent particles according to the metered quantity using a carrier gas 326, and directs the fluidized mixture 354 to the substrate driven by the carrier gas 326 as directed by the valve 324 responsive to the control logic 316. FIG. 4b shows a resulting electrode from the configuration of FIG. 4a having the molded structures 364 arranged in the array based on the mold 360 at a spacing 390.

[0041] FIG. 4c shows another configuration for the molded structures 364. Referring to FIGS. 4a-c, Any suitable number of molded structures 364-1 . . . 364-n may be deposited along each row 365-1 . . . 365-n on the substrate 350, and may have the same or dissimilar shapes. Following compression by the hot rollers 382, 384, the compressed structures 364-1 . . . 364-n expand to fill and/or eliminate any gap between adjacent structures. Further, the substrate 350 may be a continuous substrate for forming any suitable number of rows 365 to be subsequently cut into appropriate sized segments for battery manufacturing.

[0042] FIG. 5 shows a further detail of the heated rollers 382, 384 for activating the binder in the substrate and electrode as in FIGS. 2-4, and shows the arrangement of the constituent particles resulting from the reduction in thickness 356, 356. The reduction in thickness may be substantially around 25% of the deposited thickness 356, in contrast to conventional rollers which compress to only about 40-60%. In a particular configuration, heating performed by the heated rollers 382, 384 have a temperature between 100 C. and 300 C. The electrical sufficiency of the charge material occurs from the thickness reduction to 25% of a deposited electrode mixture thickness, and an initial thickness 356 of the deposited mixture is between 0.2 mm to 3.0 mm.

[0043] In implementation of rechargeable cells, the resulting electrode (substrate) 350 may be a cathode or anode for a rechargeable battery, and the spacing 390 between the molded structures 364 can be varied. A particle size of the constituent particles is between 50 nm-20 microns (0.02 mm) in an example configuration,

[0044] FIGS. 6a-6f show attributes of the dry electrode mixture. FIG. 6a shows electrochemical characterization of rate performance of the dry painted and conventional LiCoO.sub.2 (LCO) electrodes. FIG. 6b shows a cycling performance comparison between the dry painted and conventional LCO electrodes. FIG. 6c shows cyclic voltammetry of conventional LCO electrodes. FIG. 6d shows cyclic voltammetry of dry painted LCO electrodes. FIG. 6e shows a comparison of electrochemical impedance spectra between dry and conventional LCO electrodes. FIG. 6f shows cycling performance of the painted and conventional LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2 (NMC) electrodes.

[0045] A direct comparison of electrochemical characteristics between dry painted electrodes and conventional slurry-casted electrodes has been performed using both types of electrodes consisting of 90% (by weight) LCO, 5% (by weight) carbon additive, and 5% (by weight) PVDF. The composition was selected to maximize the energy density while maintaining sufficient electron conductivity and mechanical integrity. The dry painted (after hot rolling) electrode has a free-standing porosity around 30%, while the conventional cast electrode porosity is about 50%. The conventional electrode was also pressed to around 30% for direct comparison with dry electrodes. FIG. 6a shows the rate performance of the dry painted LCO electrodes at various discharge currents ranging from 0.1-3 C along with conventional slurry-cast electrodes. For the dry painted electrodes, the cell delivers a specific capacity of 121 mAhg-1 at 0.1 C, 89% of theoretical capacity (the theoretical capacity is 137 mAhg-1 for LCO over the voltage range 4.2-2.5 V vs. Li/Li+ because at the charge cut-off, 4.2 V, LCO is partially delithiated to Lio.sub.5CoO.sub.2. At 0.2 C, 0.5 C, 1 C, 2 C and 3 C, the capacity lowered to 117 mAhg-1, 110 mAhg-1, 101 mAhg-1, 95 mAhg-1, and 87 mAhg-1, which are 86%, 80%, and 74%, 70%, and 64% of the theoretical capacity, respectively. Overall, the dry printed electrode has higher capacity than the conventional slurry-cast electrodes.

[0046] The cycling performance of the dry painted and conventional LCO electrode is shown in FIG. 6b. For the dry painted (deposited) electrode, the discharge capacity versus corresponding cycle number decays from 114 mAhg-1 in the initial cycle to 80 mAhg-1 after 50 charge/discharge cycles, 70% capacity retention at 0.5 C after 50 cycles. For the conventional electrode, after 50 cycles, only 58% capacity is retained. The painted electrode has higher cycling stability than the conventional electrodes (FIG. 3B).

[0047] To understand the mechanism that allows the dry painted electrodes to outperform the conventional electrodes, both electrodes were examined by Cyclic Voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical impedance spectra (EIS). FIGS. 6c-6d compare cyclic voltammograms of the painted and conventional LCO electrodes. At a scan rate of 0.025 mV/s, a single pair of oxidation and reduction peaks, the reduction peak at 3.8 V and the oxidation peak at 4 V corresponding to a Co3+/Co4+ redox couple, is observed for both electrodes, indicating the good reversibility of lithium insertion into and extraction from LCO. With the increased scan rate, the painted electrodes largely maintain the symmetrical shape of the cathodic peaks and the anodic peaks in their CV curves, whereas the shapes of the cathodic peaks and the anodic peaks change significantly for the conventional electrodes.

[0048] Moreover, the potential difference between the cathodic peak and the anodic peak at a certain scan rate in the painted electrode is smaller than that in the conventional one, indicating that the dry painted electrode has lower electrochemical polarization and better rate capability.

[0049] Nyquist plots of the painted and conventional LCO electrode/Li cell at fully discharged state are shown in FIG. 6e. Impedance is a collective response of kinetic processes with different time regimes. All the plots consist of an intercept with the Re(Z) axis, a high-frequency semicircle and a low-frequency tail. The intercept with the Re(Z) axis at high frequency refers to the total amount of Ohmic resistance, including electrolyte resistance and electric contact resistance. This resistance is much smaller than the other contributions of resistance. The semicircle can be attributed to the electrode-electrolyte interfacial impedance, while the tail attributed to the diffusion-controlled Warburg impedance. Both electrodes show slightly decrease in interfacial impedance with cycles. The width of the semicircle of the painted electrode is smaller than that of the conventional one, indicating that the dry painted electrode has slightly lower interfacial resistance. After cycling, the width of the semicircle of the painted electrode is still smaller than that of the conventional one.

[0050] To prove its versatility of the dry manufacturing process, LiNi.sub.1/3Mn.sub.1/3Co.sub.1/3O.sub.2 (NMC) electrodes were also manufactured. The cycling performance of the painted and conventional NMC electrodes is shown in FIG. 6f. For the painted electrodes, the discharge capacity versus corresponding cycle number decays from 138 mAhg-1 in the initial cycle to 121 mAhg-1 after 50 charge/discharge cycles in the voltage of 2.8-4.3 V, meaning that there is 87% capacity retention at 0.5 C after 50 cycles. For the conventional electrodes, after 50 cycles, 84% capacity is retained. The painted electrodes have slightly better cyclability than the conventional ones. Other electrochemical characterizations, including the C-rate performance and CV comparisons, indicate dry painted NMC electrodes slightly outperform the conventional ones

[0051] FIGS. 7a-c show chemical properties of the dry electrode mixture. SEM micrographs showed a tendency for PVDF to attach and coat LCO particles without C65. When C65 is mixed in, the PVDF is stripped off of the LCO particles and readily coated by C65 particles. To understand this mixing behavior, surface energy measurements were conducted for LCO, C65, and PVDF to help explain the results of the mixing process and to help predict the mixing characteristics of various electrode materials. The sessile drop contact angle method was used to determine the polar and dispersive surface energy components for each of the materials used (FIG. 7a). LCO shows a strong polar component (37.57 mN/m) and a low relatively low dispersive component (12.75 mN/m). C65 shows opposite surface energy characteristics with it having a very large dispersive component (56.27 mN/m) and an almost non-existent polar component (0.54 mN/m). Polar and dispersive surface energy components for PVDF have values located between the respective values of LCO and C65. With LCO and C65 having extreme polar and dispersive components, they were found to heavily impact the distribution of PVDF throughout the composite. Using measured surface energy, the work of adhesion (cohesion) between two (single) materials can be calculated by Fowkes equation,

W.sub.12=2(.sub.1.sup.d.sub.2.sup.d).sup.0.5+2(.sub.1.sup.p.sub.2.sup.p).sup.0.5

[0052] where 1.sup.d and 2.sup.d are the dispersive surface energies of materials 1 and 2 while 1.sup.p and 2.sup.p are the polar surface energies. The work of adhesion calculated for PVDF to LCO and C65 show that they are higher than the work of cohesion for PVDF-PVDF contacts (FIG. 7b). This result shows that PVDF will more readily attach to LCO or C65 when either is present than to form PVDF agglomerations. The preferential adhesion of PVDF to LCO is desirable and will facilitate more even distribution throughout LCO particles and help increase the bonding performance. It should be noted that the work of adhesion between PVDF and C65 is stronger than that of PVDF and LCO. This helps to explain the observations in SEM micrographs where PVDF was shown to readily coat LCO particles but were subsequently stripped off and covered when C65 was introduced to the mixture. Work of adhesion calculations for C65 to LCO and PVDF show that C65 will preferably attach to C65 itself and form agglomerates FIG. 7c). Since adhesion between C65-PVDF is comparable to C65-C65, PVDF will be intermingled with C65 and form agglomerates (conductive binder agglomerates) as shown in insert of FIG. 7c. Due to the weaker interactions of either C65 or PVDF with LCO, the conductive binder largely maintains its agglomeration form and merely distributes around LCO particles, as illustrated in FIG. 7C. This unique distribution, as reasoned from surface energy analysis, has also been verified by SEM micrographs which show the distributions of C65/binder agglomerates when mixed with LCO.

[0053] Furthermore, the measured surface energies can provide insight into the wetting behavior of melted PVDF particles. Using the Fowkes equation,

(.sub.s.sup.d.sub.1.sup.d).sup.0.5+(.sub.s.sup.p.sub.1.sup.p).sup.0.5=0.5.sub.1(1+cos())

[0054] where subscript s and 1 represent LCO and PVDF, superscripts d and p represent dispersive and polar components, and is the contact angle. Using the surface energy components previously found for LCO and PVDF, the calculation shows that PVDF will completely wet LCO surface upon melting. Therefore, full coverage of PVDF on LCO can be expected which agrees with SEM images. Certainly, with the presence of C65, the wetting of PVDF on LCO will be hindered. The different manufacturing processes will result in different binder distributions and hence the electromechanical properties of the electrodes will vary. In the porous electrode composite, ions move through the liquid electrolyte that fills the pores of the composite. Electrons are conducted via chains of carbon particles through the composite to the current collector. PVDF holds together the active material particles and carbon additive particles into a cohesive, electronically conductive film, and provide the adhesion between the film and the current collector.

[0055] It has been established that when it is in contact with the surface of particles, a polymer tends to chemically bond or physically absorb to form a bound polymer layer on the surface of the particles of active material and carbon additive, and polymer chains tend to aligning with the surface. This bound polymer layer can interact with adjacent polymer layer to form the immobilized polymer layers due to reduced mobility. Bound and immobilized layers together are considered as fixed polymer layers. Following the formation of fixed polymer layers on particle surfaces, free polymer domains start to appear. The free binder polymers are crucial to the mechanical strength of the electrodes. Due to the substantially large surface area of active material and carbon additive present in electrodes, almost all of binder polymers are in the fixed state, and very limited polymers are free. Therefore, for a given electrode manufacturing method, the electrode composition and binder distribution has a significant effect on electrochemical properties.

[0056] FIG. 8 shows an apparatus 800 as in FIG. 2 which may be employed for adding the adhesion interlayer onto the substrate prior to depositing the charge material. Referring to FIGS. 1, 2 and 8, the particle spray 328 includes an adhesion interlayer spray 328-1 applied to the substrate 350 just before a charge material spray 328-2. Calendaring rollers 882-1 . . . 882-2 (882 generally) compress the accumulated structure 852 on the substrate 350 to achieve a predetermined thickness.

[0057] An adhesive interlayer, such as a PVDF layer, applied via dry-spraying onto the anode electrode improves the adhesion strength for the graphite anodes. Conventional approaches for graphite anodes have suffered from the shortcoming of adhesion strength between the current collectors and coating layers. This problem mainly comes from the chemical instability of copper in the atmosphere, which impacts the surface roughness and surface energy, and in turn affects the wettability of the current collector surface. In conventional approaches, prior-casting treatments for the current collectors have been considered, such as adding corrosive additives into the slurry recipe and treating the copper foil with lasers. Otherwise, electrodes may face a delamination such that batteries demonstrate rapid quality degradation. Consequently, improving the adhesion strength for graphite anodes is a beneficial application of the disclosed dry spraying method for fabricating battery anodes. Similar benefits apply to cathode fabrication.

[0058] FIGS. 9A-9D show a stepwise progression of the adhesion interlayer and charge material onto the substrate using the apparatus of FIG. 8. Referring to FIGS. 2, 8 and 9A-9D, the substrate 350 may be a planar electrode, or anode 850, typically a planar sheet of copper about 10 um thick, since the graphite nature of the anode charge materials benefits substantially from the adhesion capability of the adhesion interlayer 854. In a particular configuration, the method of forming a battery electrode includes providing a planar current collector 350 adapted for formation into a battery, such as the planar copper anode 850. A system of rollers or conveyors transports the copper anode 850 under an electrostatic spray nozzle 320-1, and the nozzle 320-1 deposits the adhesion interlayer 854 onto the current collector from the electrostatic spray nozzle 320-1. Subsequently, a second electrostatic spray nozzle 320-2 deposits a charge material layer 856 onto the adhesion interlayer 854 from the electrostatic spray nozzle 320-2, such that the adhesion interlayer 854 increases an adhesion strength between the charge material layer 856 and the copper anode 850.

[0059] The full apparatus 800 includes rollers 882-1 and 882-2 for calendaring the adhesion interlayer 854 and deposited charge material layer 856 with a roller for achieving a predetermined depth. The electrostatic spray nozzles 320 are responsive to a voltage applied to the current collector 350 for achieving a voltage difference with the spray nozzle 320 to bond the particles of the adhesion interlayer to the copper anode 850. Deposition of the interlayer also includes spraying dry particles of an adhesion substance driven by a carrier gas for bombardment against the copper anode 850.

[0060] In the example shown, PVDF (polyvinylidene fluoride or polyvinylidene difluoride) powder is employed as the adhesion interlayer, however other polymers and substances such as PVDF, CMS, SBR, PTFE, PAA and PEO may be employed. The charge material layer 856 typically includes a binder, and the adhesion interlayer 854 may be formed from the binder substance included in a portion of the charge material layer. For example, if the charge material layer 856 includes PVDF, the adhesion interlayer may include PVDF particles.

[0061] FIG. 10 shows a top view of a spray pattern of the adhesion interlayer using the spray apparatus of FIG. 8. Referring to FIGS. 8-10, deposition of the adhesion interlayer 854 further includes forming coverage regions 854 on the current collector 350. The adhesion interlayer 854 should not interfere with transfer of charge ions (i.e. electron flow) between the charge material 856 and the copper anode 850 (or other current collector 350, such as in a cathode layer configuration). The adhesion interlayer 854 therefore appears as islands on the copper anode 850 defined by the coverage regions 854, so that the charge material 856 may incur direct contact with the copper anode 850 at gaps between the islands.

[0062] FIG. 11 shows a side view of the resulting layered structure deposited by the apparatus of FIG. 8. The coverage regions 854, once deposited by the electrostatic spray nozzle 320-1, leaves pores or gaps that may be filled in by the second electrostatic spray nozzle 320-2 to form conductive areas 855. The accumulated structure 852 is defined by a layer of anode charge material adhered to the copper anode 850 by coverage regions 854 while directly contacting the copper anode for charge transfer at the gaps, or conductive areas 855, between the coverage regions 854. In a particular example, the adhesion interlayer 854 is formed from applying particles having a size up to 1 um in diameter.

FIG. 12 shows a perspective view of the layered structure 852 produced by the apparatus of FIG. 8. Referring to FIG. 8-12, the adhesion layer 854 forms coverage regions or islands 854 on the copper anode 850 where the particles of the charge material layer 856 fill in the gaps and establish contact with the copper anode 850 at contact areas 855. Deposition of the adhesion interlayer 854 effectively forms a porous surface between the current collector 350 or copper anode 850 and the charge material layer 856, such that the porous surface transports electric charge between the charge material 856 and copper anode 850. In an example arrangement, the copper anode 850 has a thickness of 10 um, the adhesion interlayer 854 has a thickness of around 1 um, and the charge material layer has a thickness in a range between 10-500 um, resulting from an electrostatic spraying of the charge material performed at an areal loading in a range between 2 and 50 mg cm.sup.2. The figures are not necessarily to scale, as the adhesion interlayer 854 has a thickness only a fraction of the charge material layer 856. Additional layers to increase the anode layer or cathode layer as discussed above may be generated by iterating the deposition and/or increasing the number of nozzles 320 in succession.

[0063] An example configuration may be defined as follows. Anode electrodes were prepared with 92 wt % MCMB powder, 2 wt % Super-C65 carbon black powder, and 6 wt % PVDF powder. Cathode electrodes were prepared with 90 wt % NCM powder, 5 wt % Super-C65 carbon black powder, and 5 wt % PVDF powder. The porosity of all thin dry-sprayed electrodes was maintained at the range of 35% for cathodes, and 40% for anodes. The areal loading of cathode electrodes was designed as 6.5 mg cm.sup.2 at the thicknesses of 45 m (including the aluminum foil at the thickness of 16 m). The areal loading of anode electrodes was designed as 4 mg cm-2 at the thicknesses of 45 m (including the copper foil at the thickness of 10 m). Anode samples at the areal loading of 6 and 8 mg cm.sup.2 were generated as well.

[0064] The porosity of the sprayed (or cast) electrode was determined by considering the theoretical density of the mix (active material, carbon black, and binder) according to the following equation. Porosity=[TS((W1/D1)+(W2/D2)+(W3/D3))]/T, where T is the thickness of the electrode laminate (without Al foil current collector); S is the weight of the laminate per area; W1, W2, and W3 are the weight percentage of active material, PVDF binder, and C65 within the electrode laminate; and D1, D2, and D3 are the true density for Li[Ni.sub.1/3Co.sub.1/3Mn.sub.1/3]O.sub.2, PVDF, and C65, respectively. The theoretical densities for Li[Ni.sub.1/3Co.sub.1/3Mn.sub.1/3]O.sub.2 active material, PVDF, and C65 are 4.68, 1.78, and 2.25 g cm.sup.3, respectively. All the porosities were calculated by assuming that the weight fractions and density of each material were not changed by the fabrication process.

[0065] Dry powders were premixed with zirconia beads in a microtube homogenizer for 60 min at 2800 rpm. After mixing, powders were added to the fluidized bed spraying chamber. The fluidized bed chamber was fed into the spraying system with the electrostatic voltage set to 25 kV and the carrier gas inlet pressure set to 1 psi. Distance from the deposition head to the grounded aluminum current collector was kept constant at 1.5 in. and the coating time was kept constant at 10 s. Surface morphology of the deposited material may be evaluated using a Helios NanoLab DualBeam operating with an emission current of 11 pA and 5 kV accelerating voltage.

[0066] Those skilled in the art should readily appreciate that the programs and methods for the controller and associated logic defined herein are deliverable to a computer processing and rendering device in many forms, including but not limited to a) information permanently stored on non-writeable storage media such as ROM devices, b) information alterably stored on writeable non-transitory storage media such as floppy disks, magnetic tapes, CDs, RAM devices, and other magnetic and optical media, or c) information conveyed to a computer through communication media, as in an electronic network such as the Internet or telephone modem lines. The operations and methods may be implemented in a software executable object or as a set of encoded instructions for execution by a processor responsive to the instructions. Alternatively, the operations and methods disclosed herein may be embodied in whole or in part using hardware components, such as Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs), Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs), state machines, controllers or other hardware components or devices, or a combination of hardware, software, and firmware components.

[0067] While the system and methods defined herein have been particularly shown and described with references to embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and details may be made therein without departing from the scope of the invention encompassed by the appended claims.