UNIQUE ELECTRODES FOR ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS

Abstract

An electrode for electrochemical cells including an electrically conductive cohesive membrane having a thickness defined by a first surface and a second surface opposite the first surface; ohmic impedance independent of membrane thickness; simultaneous uniform charge/discharge throughout membrane thickness; the membrane comprising open cell pores and surfaces; a current collector electrically strongly coupled to the entire membrane thickness; and pins extending through the membrane from the first surface to the second surface; the pins electrically coupled to the current collector having eliminated prior art problematical interfacial layers.

Claims

1. An electrode for electrochemical cells comprising: an electrically conductive cohesive membrane having a thickness defined by a first surface and a second surface opposite said first surface; said membrane comprising open cell pores and pore surfaces; a current collector electrically coupled to said pore surfaces; and pins extending through said membrane from said first surface to said second surface; said pins electrically coupled to said current collector.

2. The electrode for electrochemical cells according to claim 1, wherein said membrane comprises one of a nanoscale contiguous open cell pore structure and a mesoscopic contiguous open cell pore structure.

3. The electrode for electrochemical cells according to claim 2, wherein said pins saturate said membrane open cell pores in the absence of tearing, piercing nor displacing said first surface and said second surface and said pore surfaces.

4. The electrode for electrochemical cells according to claim 1, wherein each of said pins extend substantially orthogonal from said current collector.

5. The electrode for electrochemical cells according to claim 1, wherein said first surface is substantially parallel to said current collector and said second surface is substantially parallel to said current collector.

6. The electrode for electrochemical cells according to claim 1, further comprising: a gap formed between said first surface and said current collector, wherein said first surface is adjacent to said current collector.

7. The electrode for electrochemical cells according to claim 1, wherein a bare metal surface of at least one of; the current collector and pins otherwise exposed to electrolyte is coated with a polymer dielectric.

8. An electrochemical unit cell comprising: a positive electrode and a negative electrode separated by a separator; each of said positive electrode and said negative electrode including a galvanic membrane comprising an electrically conducting contiguous open cell porous membrane structure saturated by electrolyte and faradaic or catalyst materials; said galvanic membrane having a thickness defined by a first surface and a second surface opposite said first surface; a current collector proximate to said first surface; and pins extending through said membrane from said first surface to said second surface; said pins electrically coupled to said current collector.

9. The electrochemical unit cell according to claim 8, wherein said separator is selected from the group consisting of an electrolyte/ion permeable dielectric, polymer electrolyte membrane and solid electrolyte.

10. The electrochemical unit cell according to claim 9, wherein said pins saturate the open cell porous membrane structure.

11. The electrochemical unit cell according to claim 9, wherein the pins include a pin base proximate the current collector and a pin top located opposite the pin base proximate the separator.

12. The electrochemical unit cell according to claim 8, wherein said current collector electrically couples the pins.

13. The electrochemical unit cell according to claim 8, wherein said galvanic membrane within the pin is saturated only with pin material.

14. A process for forming an electrode for an electrochemical unit cell comprising: providing an electrically conductive cohesive galvanic membrane having a thickness defined by a first surface and a second surface opposite said first surface; said galvanic membrane comprising open cell pores and pore surfaces; electrically coupling a current collector to said pore surfaces; and forming pins extending through said galvanic membrane from said first surface to said second surface; and electrically coupling said pins to said current collector.

15. The process of claim 14, wherein said galvanic membrane comprises one of a nanoscale contiguous open cell pore structure and a mesoscopic contiguous open cell pore structure.

16. The process of claim 14, wherein said pins saturate said galvanic membrane open cell pores in the absence of tearing, piercing nor displacing said first surface and said second surface and said pore surfaces.

17. The process of claim 14, wherein said galvanic membrane within the pin is saturated only with pin material.

18. The process of claim 14, further comprising: electrically coupling the pins with the current collector.

19. The process of claim 14, further comprising: forming a gap between said first surface and said current collector.

20. The process of claim 14, wherein said galvanic membrane includes a contiguous open cell pore structure that passes unaltered through the pin with which the galvanic membrane makes unimpeded metallic contact while the galvanic membrane provides rigidity and strength to the pin.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0054] FIG. 1 is an expanded view schematic representation of an exemplary electrochemical unit cell.

[0055] FIG. 2 is a schematic oblique isometric representation of a GM connected to a CC by way of pins.

[0056] FIG. 3 is a schematic representation of a sectional view of the exemplary electrochemical cell of FIG. 2.

[0057] FIGS. 4a - 4d are schematic representations of a variety of exemplary open cell porous structures.

[0058] FIG. 5 is a schematic representation of an exemplary fuel cell.

[0059] FIG. 6a is a schematic representation of exemplary pins connected to a CC shown with GM stripped away for an unobstructed oblique isometric view.

[0060] FIG. 6b is a plan view schematic representation of an exemplary pin pattern.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0061] Referring to FIGS. 1-6, FIG. 1 illustrates a symmetrical sectional view of an exemplary electrochemical unit cell 10. The cell 10 operates as at least one of; a galvanic cell (e.g., battery, fuel cell or EDLC) to include a negative electrode (anode) 12 and a positive electrode 14 (cathode) and an electrolytic cell (e.g., electrolysis) to include a positive electrode (anode) 12 and a negative electrode (cathode) 14 separated in some, but not all cases, by electrolyte/ion permeable dielectric or polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) separator 16. In some cases e.g., solid electrolyte, the membrane separator 16 is omitted. The sectional view cuts through multiple metal pins 18 each comprising metallic extensions of CC metal 36 in the same plane but separated by a prescribed spacing 20. It also cuts through the singular unbroken electrically conductive porous membrane filling both 22 and 32 volumes to serve as a continuous cohesive high surface density skeletal structure (see FIG. 4a-4d) to enable galvanic membrane (GM) 22 and conductive pin metal 32 to function as intended. Current collector 36 comprises a finite, preferably thin sheet metal thickness having surface 37 displaced from GM first surface 28 by gap 42 of any width including 0. Irrespective of gap width 42, CC surface 37 is coated by an attached micro-thin (≈1 μm) layer of solid polymer dielectric 83. Metal pins 18 pierce polymer 83 which may also extend only so far as to cover pin bases 34. A GM is a porous skeletal membrane structure containing electrolyte and faradaic or catalytic materials. A single skeletal membrane structure separately fills polar electrodes 12 and 14 from membrane 1.sup.st surface 28 to membrane 2.sup.nd surface 30 with nanoscale contiguous open pores and surfaces. The membrane comprises open cell pores and pore surfaces 32. In accordance with this invention and of particular importance to its understanding, there is no discontinuity respecting the porous membrane support structure, ‘skeleton’ whether inside or outside metal pins 18. It is stated here as fact without precedent, inside pin volume, membrane pores and surfaces are saturated only with pin metal in total absence of electrolyte and faradaic or catalytic chemistry or their associated problematical interfacial layers. GM chemistry can only saturate membrane pores and surfaces outside of metal pins. For visual clarity, patterning indicating membrane support structure is shown within the corresponding volume of pins 18. The same pattern, if shown filling the entire space from the location of vertical line 28 to vertical line 30 would obscure what is unique about this invention. GM 22, containing electrolyte and faradaic and catalytic material, is shown as white. The same membrane skeletal structure continues unaltered within all pins whereby pin metal saturates its pores and electrically coats its surfaces to serve as an electrical conductor with unprecedented low ohmic resistance. A galvanic membrane (GM) 22 is an electrically conducting contiguous open cell porous membrane support structure saturated by electrolyte 24 and faradaic or catalyst materials 26. Only the galvanic membrane 22 support structure passes virtually unaltered through the metal wire/pin material 18 with which the galvanic membrane 22 makes unimpeded metallic contact while the galvanic membrane 22 contributes rigidity and strength to the pin 18. The pin material 18 comprises at least one of metal and electrically conductive material. The galvanic membrane 22 includes a first galvanic membrane surface 28 and a second galvanic membrane surface 30 opposite the first galvanic membrane surface 28. The galvanic membrane 22 includes membrane pores 32 distributed throughout the galvanic membrane 22. The metal pins 18 saturate the membrane pores 32. The metal pins 18 can optionally include a metal pin base 34 that contains no skeletal membrane material being solid metal commensurate with the width of the optional clear open space gap 42 proximate a current collector 36. The current collector 36 can comprise metal material or other current conducting materials. The current collector 36 electrically couples the metal pins 18. A metal pin top 38 is located opposite the metal pin base 34. The metal pin top 38 is proximate the separator 16. The metal pin base 34 is located proximate the current collector 36. A port 40 can be formed through the current collector 36. A gap 42 can be formed between the current collector 36 and galvanic membrane 22.

[0062] FIG. 2 illustrates the manner in which the galvanic membrane 22 is physically and electrically connected in this invention to current collectors 36, understood as essential components in virtually all electrochemical cells 10. Terminals in these cells are metallically connected to current collectors 36 with minimum possible ohmic resistance. Heretofore, connecting cell electric current producing GM chemistry 22 to current collectors 36 has been a persistent obstacle because of dielectric/electrolyte interfacial layers and ohmic resistances that limit electrode area specific current density, i to low values and require large area spiral or prismatic architecture. By contrast FIG. 2 shows how current collectors 36 can be connected with several orders of magnitude higher current density owing to similarly reduced electrical resistance through multiple properly spaced pins 18 in accordance with this and prior related patents to the same inventor. In-plane low resistance electrical conduction paths are confined to surfaces defined by carbon or metal open cell contiguous pores that enter pins carrying no electrolyte or chemistry related to the faradaic activity of the electrochemical cell. Space 42 is, at a minimum, the thickness of a polymer dielectric coating 83, ≈1 to 2 μm and covers the entirety of CC surface 37 as well as the surface of pins 18 not embedded within GM 22. It is counterintuitive to coat a CC with dielectric to prevent electrical current from reaching it but that is exactly the current that leads to dendrites, SEI and chemical degradation limiting cell life and charge cycling. As here described, it is not possible for problematical interfacial layers to exist anywhere within electrochemical cells in accordance with the disclosure.

[0063] FIG. 3 illustrates a sectional view of cut 3-3 of FIG. 2 through two closest pins 18 to show how the character of the contiguous open pore skeletal backbone of GM membrane 22, located between first and second surfaces 28 and 30, changes from containing galvanic material and electrolyte 24 between pins 18, to containing only porous carbon nanotubes (CNT) 46, i.e., comprising membrane 22 open pore ‘backbone’ material saturated with pin metal within the volume of pin metal 18. Some of the CNT fibers 44 that participate in forming the GM portion of membrane 22 contact, partially enter or fully transect, the pin 18, e.g., 46. In effect, membrane 22 within the pin 18 is saturated only with pin metal. Exterior of the pin 18 galvanic membrane 22 is saturated with electrolyte 24 and faradaic materials 26 that, respectively, fill and coat pores and surfaces of CNT 44. In brief, the continuity of a membrane electrically conductive porous skeletal backbone is never broken throughout an electrode from surface 28 to surface 30. It is exclusively saturated by galvanic materials and electrolyte between the pins and exclusively by metal within the pins. Furthermore, CC metal surface 37 is coated with a thin (1-2 μm) layer of polymer dielectric 83 to block electrical leakage current from reaching metal CC, thus preventing the formation of corrosive interfacial layers. The same applies to such coating over otherwise exposed bases 85 of pins 18.

[0064] FIG. 4a-4d illustrates a variety of open cell porous structures 48. Structure pores are cohesively formed by walls, connected particles or nonwoven fibers wherein walls, particles and fibers have defined surfaces. Faradaic chemistry and electrolyte attaches to said surfaces outside of pin volumes. Inside of pin volumes only metal attaches to said surfaces absent any interfacial layer. Among all of the various currently available contiguous open cell porous structures 48, CNT and CNF are probably the most readily available and cost effective. Except for LIB cathode energy storage particles, every other energy storing and catalyst material can be strongly coupled electrically and physically to these graphene type material structures 50. 02 breathing LIB cathodes do not use these particles. FIG. 4a shows a CNT “buckypaper” structure 52. Buckypaper can be defined as a thin sheet made from an aggregate of non-woven carbon nanotubes. FIG. 4b shows open cell porous structure with fibers 54 coated with strongly coupled Pt particles 56. FIG. 4c shows a contiguous open cell carbon nanofoam 58. FIG. 4d shows a contiguous open cell metal nanofoam 60.

[0065] At FIG. 5 an exemplary fuel cell is shown. As a simple example of an application of the disclosure a microscopic section of a popular PEM fuel cell 70 is shown in FIG. 5. An electrically conductive interior 64 in prior art is considered to be a carbon particle ‘buckyball’ or fullerene comprising a spherical arrangement of carbon atoms. There is no cohesion and poor electrical conduction between such particles. That limits the thickness and energy capacity of a membrane coating on PEM 72. In this invention the interior lumen 64 is intended to depict the center of a single wall CNT 66 although multi-wall versions are also included by reference herein. Reactant gas 68 flows over a nanoscale thin film of electrolyte 74 that diffuses from bulk PEM 72 to coat CNT exterior surfaces between catalyst particles 76 strongly coupled to carbon surfaces. As a conceptual description the 3-phase mutual reaction chemistry is thereby satisfied. Previously used carbon particles coated by an electrolyte 74 interfacial layer retard electron flow through any but the thinnest application of a galvanic membrane 22. Carbon in the form of nanotubes readily conduct electricity in the plane of a much thicker galvanic membrane 22 to and through the pins 18 to a current collector 36 seen in FIGS. 1 and 2. A GM comprising unlimited buckypaper thickness can be employed to obtain substantially higher current density electrodes. As this novel fuel cell membrane is substantially thicker, polymer electrolyte in the form of brushed or sprayed (PEM) ionomer is used to coat an arbitrary thickness of GM. This has no effect on claimed electrical resistance. The thin layer of electrolyte 74 reaches catalyst 76 to promote the obligatory three-phase contact with gas 68. That permits redox reactions to take place rapidly and simultaneously on the many surfaces of CNT.

[0066] At FIG. 6 typical pins 18 connected to a CC 36 are shown with GM stripped away for an unobstructed oblique isometric view. A pin base is hi-lighted at 34 but can be seen at the base of other pins 18 with greater magnification. In this representation the bases had no attached membrane to accommodate a gap 42 within the electrode for material entry and/or exit porting. Pin 18 and CC 36 metal are generally but not necessarily of the same material. Also shown is the most efficient pin 18 location distribution that satisfies the requirements of the disclosure. Namely that no point within a GM 22 is further from a closest pin than 3 times the thickness of the GM 22. In a hexagonal pattern every pin is equidistant from every nearest 6 pins. Pin distribution for claimed ultralow resistance is satisfied by this invention.

[0067] The disclosure achieves unprecedented low resistance to electrical current by means of novel architecture while simultaneously enabling unrestricted interaction between valence potential chemistry and electrolyte.

[0068] This invention accomplishes an actual metallic bond with zero ohmic resistance in the interface between CC metal and the galvanic membrane.

[0069] The disclosed invention replaces conductive powders that must be applied to non-cohesive structures with free standing cohesive non-woven Carbon Nanotubes, CNT (buckypaper), Carbon Nanofoam, CNF or graphene, GC layers as a porous contiguous open cell current carrying medium. These and other cohesive free standing electrical conducting membrane forms, further described, are preferred as MEA in this invention because of the high nanoscale surface density they contain. 15 nm diameter CNT at 20% solids volume contains ≈5×10.sup.3 cm.sup.2/m1 coatable surface. 80% MEA volume remains for faradaic/catalytic chemistry and electrolyte. CNF with comparable pore diameter subtracts less volume and is 50% more area efficient to provide ≈3×10.sup.4 cm.sup.2/m1 coatable surface. Hereinafter, MEA shall imply the use of galvanic membranes as just described in this paragraph.

[0070] Anodes and cathodes of virtually all electrochemical cells fundamentally comprise a structural combination of the following components. 1) Concentrated micro or nano scale porous surfaces of electrically conductive material, e.g. graphene forms of single crystal amorphous or structured layers, nano tube CNT, open cell foam CNF or conventional graphitic carbon particles that must communicate with and exchange electrical charge with redox faradaic and/or catalytic materials. Said redox materials simultaneously communicate with 2) dielectric electrolyte (solid or liquid). Fuel cells add the further complication of a third phase, namely gas that must share communication with redox, electrically conducting and dielectric electrolyte materials at the nano scale. 3) Suitable carbon structures can efficiently collect charge from chemical reactions, especially when those are strongly coupled to carbon, e.g., catalysts, in electronic double layer supercapacitors (EDLC) and in most faradaic battery couples except at present for Lithium (LIB) cathodes. Carbon can transfer charge over a short distance with reasonably low ohmic resistance. What it cannot do is move that charge into a metal current collector with low resistance across an electrolyte barrier that obtains in all art prior to this invention. This invention completely eliminates that interfacial layer. Charge transfers to cell terminals with metallic resistance.

[0071] There is wide opinion that Li-metal anodes will provide an order of magnitude improvement in energy storage capacity respecting present technology although degradation of the Li-metal electrode during cycling in volatile electrolytes prevents stability and longevity. Solid electrolyte is somewhat more stable but does not yet offer a similar energy storage advantage. An interfacial understanding is necessary for developing strategies to commercialize high-energy density and high-power density rechargeable Li metal anodes. Prior art attempts to attach the Li metal directly onto the metal surface of the current collector that conveys charge transfer to the cell terminals. Except for the disclosure, that cannot be done absent an intervening electrolyte interfacial layer which is a high ohmic resistance barrier that limits area specific current density due to high i.sup.2R heat loss. It also leads to the creation of Solid-Electrolyte Interphase (SEI), dendrite growth short circuit through the dielectric separator (e.g., Celgard™) all collectively limiting cycle ability and stability of the LIB. The cathode is subject to even greater interfacial resistance barriers in present LIB.

[0072] Pressure, ≈1,000 KPa has been applied to assembled polar electrodes in an effort to squeeze out interfacial layers or patterns cut into them to promote attachment to metal surface current collectors with no serious cycling improvement in any of the factors aforementioned producing even faster degradation as fully explored in prior art. Another strategy, but not widely used, employs graphene structures mentioned previously. Si-coated CNT intercalates nearly as much Li as the bare metal on a volumetric basis but attaching the composite membrane to metal surfaces across the interfacial electrolyte layer remains along with all the instabilities hereinabove described. The cathode suffers additional interfacial barriers at its attempt to connect faradaic particles to graphene current collectors that, in turn, cannot attach to the metal current collector without similar barriers. As a result these have not found much use in commerce.

[0073] As further detailed within, these barriers are not merely mitigated they are eliminated. The concept is easier to introduce in terms of EDLC energy storage using CNT as the structural backbone or primary current collector. It is more accurately referred to as (Electronic Double Layer Pseudo-capacitance) EDLP best explained by Conway, “Electrochemical Supercapacitors”, pp. 222-223, Plenum (1999). Many examples of polar binary faradaics develop >2.5 volts when fully charged. Ordinary EDLC stores charges at up to ≈0.2 electrons/atom of accessible surface. At 500 to 2,000 μF/cm.sup.2 EDLP on an equivalent charge basis, respectively stores 2.5 to 10 electrons/atom. This is competitive with batteries that store 1 to 3 electrons/atom of bulk phase. The ratio of surface to volume for CNT is 4/Diameter. 15 nm CNT with 80% packing to hold electrolyte contains ≈2×10.sup.6 cm.sup.2/ml and stores 4×10.sup.3 Farad/ml. Energy is ½ CV.sup.2=25×10.sup.3 W.Math.s or Joules/ml. The most popular 18650 LIB provides ≈ 1/10th that energy density. A very conservative estimate for EDLP would put them about on par.

[0074] In virtually all useful cases EDLP faradaics can be very strongly coupled to functionalized CNT surfaces with negligible interfacial resistance. Liquid electrolyte provides capacitive charge storage at densely populated surfaces of CNT. The disclosure goes to attachment of a CNT membrane to metal having no interfacial layer of electrolyte and no Ohmic resistance at the point of attachment. Ion exchange across Helmholtz layers is virtually instantaneous. EDLP has a different discharge profile that best cuts off at half capacity. Finally, the pattern and distribution of attachments is such that the collective resistance of an extended membrane area of any size is less than 10.sup.−5 Ω-cm.sup.2 with profound influence on its use.

[0075] In spite of popular claims to the contrary, standard 18650 LIB can be charged/discharged at recommended ½-C to at most 1C or heat will rapidly degrade cycling performance as earlier noted. Fast charging remains promised but not actually delivered in previously disclosed techniques. In the current disclosure, R in i.sup.2R is reduced by more than 6 orders of magnitude respecting LIB in present use. It follows that i can be increased from less than 10 mA/cm.sup.2(½C) to 1 A/cm.sup.2-area specific electrode in LIB and >10 A/cm.sup.2 in fuel cells. The same applies to EDLP and fuel cells in the disclosure further addressed. What is most important in EDLP is that equivalent series resistance (ESR) allows repetitive half of full capacity cycling at >kHz rates. This should be understood as follows. Capacitor discharge is in accordance with a t=RC time constant where C is in farads and R is the extremely low ESR in this case. Now t can remain extremely short even when electrodes are loaded with very high values of capacity, C. Briefly, half the storable energy can be repetitively charged/discharged in less than 1 millisecond. Deep UV, Excimer or even X-ray laser can be pumped to 3 orders of magnitude higher power than, e.g. a High Energy Liquid Laser Area Defense System (HELLADS) which presently operates at 150 kW. That is a ‘Death Ray’ but a >150 MW focused beam will melt terrestrial rocks from a stationary Earth orbit in less than 120 milliseconds. It is the same energy but 1,000 times faster than present technology. It is concentrated energy (power) that melts rock.

[0076] As catalysts used in this application are universally eligible for strong coupling to CNT surfaces that is a preferred choice for the membrane carbon backbone. The structural stability of a passivated composite galvanic membrane at temperatures to 300° C. make it particularly suited to redox chemistry in hydrocarbon fuel cells.

[0077] The overarching parameter ensuring electric charge transfer with negligible ohmic impedance measured between faradaic chemistry and cell terminals in accordance with the disclosure and related cases cited hereinabove requires a widely distributed pattern of small area current collection locations wherein each said location is not further from similar nearest locations to assure that no point within a GM is further from a metal conductor than three times the thickness of the GM. That criterion is based upon the fact that typical cohesive GM material has in-plane electrical conductivity of at least 100 S.Math.cm.sup.−1 (i.e., 0.01 Ω.Math.cm). Most CNT and CNF membranes meet such criteria at volumetric material density of 20%. Art prior to the disclosure is limited to very thin membrane thickness 50 μm, ergo less energy storage. The opposite is true here where resistance decreases as thickness increases without limit.

[0078] For example, EDLC pseudocapacitance having ESR too low to measure may employ 80% CNT or CNF solid density packed with polar faradaics at higher energy density than any LIB. Of course, LIB can be improved in the same way. Fuel cells will use lower density (20%) to achieve fuel/electrolyte permeability >20 Darcy. Depending upon specific application the optimum membrane solid material density across most electrochemical cell designs will be between 20% and 80%. Fuel cells in accordance with the disclosure will use a membrane thickness chosen to achieve close to 100% oxidation in anodes and reduction of O.sub.2 in cathodes to serve the purpose of the cell. GM thickness is equivalent to process path length, independent of cell ohmic resistance.

[0079] Pins 32 distributed over CC surface 36 in hexagonal array as illustrated in FIG. 6 requires the fewest number of pins to satisfy the GM attachment protocol hereinabove. Every pin is equidistant from its nearest neighbors, of uniform height defining electrode thickness and in total removes less than 3% from active GM electrode area when in accordance with this specification. Pin diameter may be GM thickness and pin height may be limited to no more than 20 times pin diameter in practice. Pin material is any good electrically conducting metal.

[0080] The chief attribute of electrodes in accordance with this invention is capacity for unprecedented high current density. Typical LIB C-rate is 0.01 amp/cm.sup.2. It takes 342 cm.sup.2 of popular spiral or prismatic wound 18650 electrode to achieve the 3.2 amp-hr. rating. 1 amp/cm.sup.2 current density does not begin to challenge the limits of this invention. As examples the same area with 100 times faster charging or a stack of 100 electrodes 3.4 cm.sup.2 diameter in series for a 350-volt battery containing the same energy with charging C-rate in 3 minutes. Present fuel cells operate at 1 volt and amp/cm.sup.2 although F. Bacon achieved 1 amp/cm.sup.2 at 0.8V with pressure and alkali electrolyte. The fundamental limit in every case is i.sup.2R heat even for cells operating at high temperature. With >10.sup.−5 reduction in R, i can be increased more than 100-fold.

[0081] Two aspects of this invention are unprecedented regarding popular doctrine, see Newman, J., “Electrochemical Systems” pp. 518-538 Wiley 3.sup.rd Ed. 2004 wherein electron and proton charge transfer R, are inseparable. And it refers to activity profile zones, FIG. 22.6. Here electron charge transfer R is measured independently of ion mobility as a linear profile of current vs. voltage at t=0 with R independent of membrane thickness. Furthermore, electrodes of this invention charge and discharge uniformly throughout their volume.

[0082] There has been provided an ultralow ohmic resistance electrode for electrochemical cells. While the ultralow ohmic resistance electrode for electrochemical cells has been described in the context of specific embodiments thereof, other unforeseen alternatives, modifications, and variations may become apparent to those skilled in the art having read the foregoing description. Accordingly, it is intended to embrace those alternatives, modifications, and variations which fall within the broad scope of the appended claims.