A method includes providing thermal energy to a component, determining a thermal response of the component in response to providing the thermal energy, and determining a thermal characteristic of the component based on a reference thermal response and the thermal response. The method includes predicting a surface condition of the component based on the thermal characteristic and a predictive analytic model, where the predictive analytic model correlates the thermal characteristic of the component to an estimated surface condition of the component.

A thermoacoustic measurement probe may include an open-ended hollow radio-frequency (RF) waveguide; and a thermoacoustic transducer, wherein the open-ended hollow RF waveguide, in the form of a sleeve, surrounds and is mechanically joined to the thermoacoustic transducer.

Transient techniques for electrothermal characterization of small (e.g., micro-scale or nano-scale) samples are described. These techniques overcome some of the limitations existing in conventional approaches. These transient techniques involve causing a temperature variation inside a sample, and determining a transient signal response (e.g., a voltage rise or drop) arising in the sample as a result of the temperature variation. In some embodiments, the temperature variation may be caused by allowing amplitude modulated electric current (e.g., stepped current or periodic stepped current) to flow through the sample. Alternatively, or additionally, the temperature variation may be caused by controlling a laser source to irradiate the sample. Thermal characteristics of the sample (e.g., thermal diffusivity, thermal conductivity, specific heat) can be determined based on the transient response. These transient techniques can be executed by a computer system in an automatic fashion, e.g., without having to rely on a user to manually pre-process the measurement data.

An apparatus for measuring the steam quality is presented. The apparatus comprises a tube (1) with an open end (5) and a closed end. The open end has a fluid connection with the sterilizer chamber. At the closed end a heat sink (6) with a thermometer (7) is connected of which the temperature can be controlled. In the axial direction along the tube several thermometers (8) are attached to monitor the temperature profile along the tube. Apart from or instead of this, the device may comprise a thermal resistance (11) between the closed end of the tube and the heat sink. At different axial positions on this thermal resistance thermometers (10) may be attached to monitor the cooling power required to keep the heat sink at a predetermined temperature. Both the temperature profile and the cooling power are directly related to the fraction of non-condensable gases present in the sterilizer chamber.

An apparatus for measuring the steam quality is presented. The apparatus comprises a tube (1) with an open end (5) and a closed end. The open end has a fluid connection with the sterilizer chamber. At the closed end a heat sink (6) with a thermometer (7) is connected of which the temperature can be controlled. In the axial direction along the tube several thermometers (8) are attached to monitor the temperature profile along the tube. Apart from or instead of this, the device may comprise a thermal resistance (11) between the closed end of the tube and the heat sink. At different axial positions on this thermal resistance thermometers (10) may be attached to monitor the cooling power required to keep the heat sink at a predetermined temperature. Both the temperature profile and the cooling power are directly related to the fraction of non-condensable gases present in the sterilizer chamber.

Provided is a method for evaluating and utilizing sonnenbrand basalt aggregate, including steps as follows: mixing a basalt aggregate defined as sonnenbrand basalt into an asphalt mixture; carrying out thermal aging experiments at different temperatures and durations to obtain a theoretical trigger time t.sub.i for the sonnenbrand phenomenon under a thermal aging temperature T.sub.i; further calculating to obtain a theoretical thermal aging factor AF.sub.0 for the sonnenbrand phenomenon; statistically calculating a thermal aging factor AF for an actual construction to evaluate a performance of the basalt aggregate, if AF<AF.sub.0, the construction may be carried out normally, if AF≥AF.sub.0, then shortening the transportation and waiting duration and/or lowering the factory temperature of the asphalt mix so that the thermal aging factor AF<AF.sub.0 during actual construction.

Provided is a method for evaluating and utilizing sonnenbrand basalt aggregate, including steps as follows: mixing a basalt aggregate defined as sonnenbrand basalt into an asphalt mixture; carrying out thermal aging experiments at different temperatures and durations to obtain a theoretical trigger time t.sub.i for the sonnenbrand phenomenon under a thermal aging temperature T.sub.i; further calculating to obtain a theoretical thermal aging factor AF.sub.0 for the sonnenbrand phenomenon; statistically calculating a thermal aging factor AF for an actual construction to evaluate a performance of the basalt aggregate, if AF<AF.sub.0, the construction may be carried out normally, if AF≥AF.sub.0, then shortening the transportation and waiting duration and/or lowering the factory temperature of the asphalt mix so that the thermal aging factor AF<AF.sub.0 during actual construction.

Provided is a method for evaluating and utilizing sonnenbrand basalt aggregate, including steps as follows: mixing a basalt aggregate defined as sonnenbrand basalt into an asphalt mixture; carrying out thermal aging experiments at different temperatures and durations to obtain a theoretical trigger time t.sub.i for the sonnenbrand phenomenon under a thermal aging temperature T.sub.i; further calculating to obtain a theoretical thermal aging factor AF.sub.0 for the sonnenbrand phenomenon; statistically calculating a thermal aging factor AF for an actual construction to evaluate a performance of the basalt aggregate, if AF<AF.sub.0, the construction may be carried out normally, if AF≥AF.sub.0, then shortening the transportation and waiting duration and/or lowering the factory temperature of the asphalt mix so that the thermal aging factor AF<AF.sub.0 during actual construction.

Provided is a method for evaluating and utilizing sonnenbrand basalt aggregate, including steps as follows: mixing a basalt aggregate defined as sonnenbrand basalt into an asphalt mixture; carrying out thermal aging experiments at different temperatures and durations to obtain a theoretical trigger time t.sub.i for the sonnenbrand phenomenon under a thermal aging temperature T.sub.i; further calculating to obtain a theoretical thermal aging factor AF.sub.0 for the sonnenbrand phenomenon; statistically calculating a thermal aging factor AF for an actual construction to evaluate a performance of the basalt aggregate, if AF<AF.sub.0, the construction may be carried out normally, if AF≥AF.sub.0, then shortening the transportation and waiting duration and/or lowering the factory temperature of the asphalt mix so that the thermal aging factor AF<AF.sub.0 during actual construction.

A rock sample is subjected to a heating sequence in an inert atmosphere, the effluents resulting from this heating are oxidized, the hydrocarbon-based compounds, the CO, the CO.sub.2 and the SO.sub.2 released are measured, and a pyrolysis pyritic sulfur content is deduced therefrom. The residue resulting from the heating in an inert atmosphere is then heated in an oxidizing atmosphere and the CO and the CO.sub.2 released are measured. The pyritic sulfur content is determined at least from the pyrolysis pyritic sulfur content and from a parameter which is a function of the hydrogen content and of the oxygen content of the organic matter of the sample. It is also possible to determine the organic sulfur content from the pyritic sulfur content and from a measurement of the SO.sub.2 during the heating sequence in an oxidizing atmosphere.