Methods, apparatuses, devices, and systems for (i) producing and controlling and fusion activities of nuclei, and (ii) heating liquid via heat generated as a result of the fusion activities. Hydrogen atoms or other neutral species (neutrals) are induced to rotational motion in a confinement region as a result of ion-neutral coupling, in which ions are driven by electric and magnetic fields. The controlled fusion activities cover a spectrum of reactions including aneutronic reactions such as proton-boron-11 fusion reactions.

Methods, apparatuses, devices, and systems for (i) producing and controlling and fusion activities of nuclei, and (ii) heating liquid via heat generated as a result of the fusion activities. Hydrogen atoms or other neutral species (neutrals) are induced to rotational motion in a confinement region as a result of ion-neutral coupling, in which ions are driven by electric and magnetic fields. The controlled fusion activities cover a spectrum of reactions including aneutronic reactions such as proton-boron-11 fusion reactions.

A fusion reactor with a spherical shaped confinement apparatus comprising a plurality of conductive coils that form a rotating negative potential well about a confined center at the center of the system, confining electrons expelled from a surrounding electron discharging grid to obtain a curved spherical rotation pattern to the electrons confined with in the confinement apparatus. The confinement apparatus is also rotated by a multipolar rotating electric machine to promote improved confinement by reducing the amount of time for electrons to escape confinement and shaping the particles in a more curved and spherical shape to allow converging and diverging geodesic effects to enhance tighter and denser particle confinement. This fusion concept reduces the amount of energy needed to operate while minimizing magnetic reconnection disturbances, allowing the NESAR to be the world's first reactor to meet the break-even point of fusion with possible gravitational effects.

A method of containing plasma and forming a Field Reversed Configuration (FRC) magnetic topology. A magnetic guide field is created within a cylindrical chamber. The guide field has field lines axially extending within the chamber parallel to the longitudinal axis. A plasma of charged electron and ion particles is injected into the chamber. The plasma is caused to rotate, which forms a magnetic poloidal self-field surrounding the rotating plasma due to the current carried by the rotating plasma. The rotational energy of the plasma is increased to increase the magnitude of the self-field to a level that overcomes the magnetic guide field axially extending within the chamber, which causes the formation of a magnetic field within the chamber with FRC topology.

A method of containing plasma and forming a Field Reversed Configuration (FRC) magnetic topology. A magnetic guide field is created within a cylindrical chamber. The guide field has field lines axially extending within the chamber parallel to the longitudinal axis. A plasma of charged electron and ion particles is injected into the chamber. The plasma is caused to rotate, which forms a magnetic poloidal self-field surrounding the rotating plasma due to the current carried by the rotating plasma. The rotational energy of the plasma is increased to increase the magnitude of the self-field to a level that overcomes the magnetic guide field axially extending within the chamber, which causes the formation of a magnetic field within the chamber with FRC topology.

A high performance field reversed configuration (FRC) system includes a central confinement vessel, two diametrically opposed reversed-field-theta-pinch formation sections coupled to the vessel, and two divertor chambers coupled to the formation sections. A magnetic system includes quasi-dc coils axially positioned along the FRC system components, quasi-dc mirror coils between the confinement chamber and the formation sections, and mirror plugs between the formation sections and the divertors. The formation sections include modular pulsed power formation systems enabling static and dynamic formation and acceleration of the FRCs. The FRC system further includes neutral atom beam injectors, pellet injectors, gettering systems, axial plasma guns and flux surface biasing electrodes. The beam injectors are preferably angled toward the midplane of the chamber. In operation, FRC plasma parameters including plasma thermal energy, total particle numbers, radius and trapped magnetic flux, are sustainable at or about a constant value without decay during neutral beam injection.

A high performance field reversed configuration (FRC) system includes a central confinement vessel, two diametrically opposed reversed-field-theta-pinch formation sections coupled to the vessel, and two divertor chambers coupled to the formation sections. A magnetic system includes quasi-dc coils axially positioned along the FRC system components, quasi-dc mirror coils between the confinement chamber and the formation sections, and mirror plugs between the formation sections and the divertors. The formation sections include modular pulsed power formation systems enabling static and dynamic formation and acceleration of the FRCs. The FRC system further includes neutral atom beam injectors, pellet injectors, gettering systems, axial plasma guns and flux surface biasing electrodes. The beam injectors are preferably angled toward the midplane of the chamber. In operation, FRC plasma parameters including plasma thermal energy, total particle numbers, radius and trapped magnetic flux, are sustainable at or about a constant value without decay during neutral beam injection.

An X-ray tube can include: a cathode including an electron emitter that emits an electron beam; an anode configured to receive the electron beam; a first magnetic quadrupole between the cathode and the anode and having a first yoke with four first pole projections extending from the first yoke and oriented toward a central axis of the first yoke and each of the four first pole projections having a first quadrupole electromagnetic coil; a second magnetic quadrupole between the first magnetic quadrupole and the anode and having a second yoke with four second pole projections extending from the second yoke and oriented toward a central axis of the second yoke and each of the four second pole projections having a second quadrupole electromagnetic coil; and at least one steering coil collocated with a quadrupole on a pole projection.

A small plasma source that enables highly efficient discharge in an ultra-high vacuum state includes a first magnet, a second magnet arranged so that a second magnetic pole faces the first magnetic pole of the first magnet, a third magnet having the second magnetic pole directed in the same direction as the first magnetic pole of the first magnet and arranged to surround the first magnet, a fourth magnet having the first magnetic pole different from the second magnetic pole facing the second magnetic pole of the third magnet and arranged to surround the second magnet, a first electrode provided on sides of the first magnetic pole of the first magnet and the second magnetic pole of the third magnet, a second electrode facing the first electrode and provided on sides of the second magnetic pole of the second magnet and the first magnetic pole of the fourth magnet, and a third electrode arranged between the first electrode and the second electrode. A value obtained by dividing a shorter distance between a distance between the first magnet and the second magnet and a distance between the third magnet and the fourth magnet by an average value of thicknesses of the first to fourth magnets is 1 or more and 10 or less.

A small plasma source that enables highly efficient discharge in an ultra-high vacuum state includes a first magnet, a second magnet arranged so that a second magnetic pole faces the first magnetic pole of the first magnet, a third magnet having the second magnetic pole directed in the same direction as the first magnetic pole of the first magnet and arranged to surround the first magnet, a fourth magnet having the first magnetic pole different from the second magnetic pole facing the second magnetic pole of the third magnet and arranged to surround the second magnet, a first electrode provided on sides of the first magnetic pole of the first magnet and the second magnetic pole of the third magnet, a second electrode facing the first electrode and provided on sides of the second magnetic pole of the second magnet and the first magnetic pole of the fourth magnet, and a third electrode arranged between the first electrode and the second electrode. A value obtained by dividing a shorter distance between a distance between the first magnet and the second magnet and a distance between the third magnet and the fourth magnet by an average value of thicknesses of the first to fourth magnets is 1 or more and 10 or less.