A lithium secondary battery including a negative electrode, a positive electrode, a first electrolyte layer facing the negative electrode; and a second electrolyte layer present on the first electrolyte layer, wherein the first electrolyte layer has a higher ion conductivity than the second electrolyte layer, and a lithium secondary battery comprising the electrolyte described above.

An electrochemical cell includes a casing that: includes a lower first element in the form of a vessel, the internal surface of which is at least partially covered by a layer of conductive material so as to form the current collector of the first electrode with a first polarity; includes an upper second element in the form of a cover for closing the vessel; houses a three-dimensional electrode structure with a first electric polarity; houses a three-dimensional electrode structure with a second electric polarity opposite to the first electric polarity; and contains an electrolyte as an ionic conductive medium. The three-dimensional electrode structure with the second electric polarity includes a series of electrodes with a second polarity, each of which is an elongated body with a vertical orientation.

An electrochemical cell includes a casing that: includes a lower first element in the form of a vessel, the internal surface of which is at least partially covered by a layer of conductive material so as to form the current collector of the first electrode with a first polarity; includes an upper second element in the form of a cover for closing the vessel; houses a three-dimensional electrode structure with a first electric polarity; houses a three-dimensional electrode structure with a second electric polarity opposite to the first electric polarity; and contains an electrolyte as an ionic conductive medium. The three-dimensional electrode structure with the second electric polarity includes a series of electrodes with a second polarity, each of which is an elongated body with a vertical orientation.

In an embodiment an electrochemical cell includes a first electrode having a first surface area A1, a second electrode having a second surface area A2, an electrolyte arranged between the first electrode and the second electrode, wherein the electrochemical cell is configured to provide a first electrochemical half-cell reaction at the first electrode and provide a second electrochemical half-cell reaction at the second electrode, and wherein a surface area ratio A1/A2 is larger than a stoichiometric ratio of the first half-cell reaction and the second half-cell reaction.

A method for formation of cylindrical and prismatic can cells may include providing a battery, where the battery includes one or more cells, with each cell including at least one silicon-dominant anode, a cathode, and a separator. The battery also includes a metal can that contains the one or more cells such that during formation a pressure between 50 kPa and 1 MPa is applied to the one or more cells. The battery may include strain absorbing materials arranged between the one or more cells and interior walls of the can. The strain absorbing materials may include foam. The strain absorbing materials may include a solid electrolyte layer. The strain absorbing materials may include PMMA, PVDF, or a combination thereof. The pressure during a formation process may be due to a thickness of the strain absorbing materials being thicker than an expansion of the one or more cells.

A method for formation of cylindrical and prismatic can cells may include providing a battery, where the battery includes one or more cells, with each cell including at least one silicon-dominant anode, a cathode, and a separator. The battery also includes a metal can that contains the one or more cells such that during formation a pressure between 50 kPa and 1 MPa is applied to the one or more cells. The battery may include strain absorbing materials arranged between the one or more cells and interior walls of the can. The strain absorbing materials may include foam. The strain absorbing materials may include a solid electrolyte layer. The strain absorbing materials may include PMMA, PVDF, or a combination thereof. The pressure during a formation process may be due to a thickness of the strain absorbing materials being thicker than an expansion of the one or more cells.

A flexible all-solid-state lithium-ion secondary battery is prepared by placing a positive electrode and a negative electrode or optionally a separator of the lithium-ion secondary battery in a gelable system in which a solid electrolyte has not yet formed by a way of infiltration or coating, so that the surfaces and the interiors of the positive and negative electrodes are infiltrated by the gelable system, which also fills the voids inside the positive and negative electrodes. When the gelable system is solidified to form the solid electrolyte, it can form the solid electrolyte in situ on the surfaces and interiors of the positive and negative electrodes. The lithium-ion secondary battery prepared by the method can form a conductive network inside the entire battery, which can not only extremely reduce the internal resistance of the lithium-ion secondary battery, thereby improving the conductivity and rate capability, but also solve the potential safety hazard problem caused by liquid electrolytes.

A flexible all-solid-state lithium-ion secondary battery is prepared by placing a positive electrode and a negative electrode or optionally a separator of the lithium-ion secondary battery in a gelable system in which a solid electrolyte has not yet formed by a way of infiltration or coating, so that the surfaces and the interiors of the positive and negative electrodes are infiltrated by the gelable system, which also fills the voids inside the positive and negative electrodes. When the gelable system is solidified to form the solid electrolyte, it can form the solid electrolyte in situ on the surfaces and interiors of the positive and negative electrodes. The lithium-ion secondary battery prepared by the method can form a conductive network inside the entire battery, which can not only extremely reduce the internal resistance of the lithium-ion secondary battery, thereby improving the conductivity and rate capability, but also solve the potential safety hazard problem caused by liquid electrolytes.

Provided here are ion conducting materials including one or more macrocycles, and either one or more pendant groups or one or more backbone repeat units. The ion conducting materials exhibit distinctly high ion conductivity in thin film and bulk membrane applications, and further exhibit one or more of ion permselectivity, mechanical strength, self-assembly, stacking, and gating behavior. Further provided are methods for preparation and methods for use of the ion conducting materials.

Provided here are ion conducting materials including one or more macrocycles, and either one or more pendant groups or one or more backbone repeat units. The ion conducting materials exhibit distinctly high ion conductivity in thin film and bulk membrane applications, and further exhibit one or more of ion permselectivity, mechanical strength, self-assembly, stacking, and gating behavior. Further provided are methods for preparation and methods for use of the ion conducting materials.