In-situ magnesium-metal generated rechargeable magnesium battery

Abstract

A method for production of a magnesium battery with low impedance is provided. A cell is constructed comprising an uncoated current collector anode, an electrolyte system comprising a non-aqueous solvent and a magnesium salt soluble in the non-aqueous solvent, and a cathode. The cell is charged to electrodeposit magnesium metal unto the uncoated current collector to obtain an anode having magnesium metal as the active material. Also provided are rechargeable magnesium batteries obtained by the method.

Claims

1. A method for production of a magnesium battery, comprising: construction of a cell comprising an uncoated current collector anode, an electrolyte system comprising a non-aqueous solvent and a magnesium salt soluble in the non-aqueous solvent, and a cathode; and charging the cell to electrodeposit magnesium metal unto the uncoated current collector to form an anode having magnesium metal as the active material and obtain a secondary magnesium battery comprising the formed anode, the cathode and the electrolyte system.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the electrolyte system comprises one selected from the group consisting of a borohydride-based electrolyte, a Grignard-based electrolyte and an ionic liquid based electrolyte.

3. The method of claim 1, wherein the electrolyte system comprises a borohydride based electrolyte and the electrolyte salt is Mg monocarborane.

4. The method of claim 1, wherein the Mg deposition is conducted with more than one charge cycles.

5. The method of claim 1, wherein the anode current collector comprises one selected from the group consisting of carbon, carbon paper, carbon cloth, a metal, a noble metal mesh and a metal foil.

6. The method according to claim 1 wherein a content of Mg ion in the electrolyte is from 0.05 to 2.0 M.

7. A rechargeable magnesium battery, obtained according to the method of claim 1, comprising: an anode current collector of a material selected from the group consisting of carbon, carbon paper carbon cloth, a metal, a noble metal mesh and a metal foil; an electrolyte system selected from the group consisting of a borohydride-based electrolyte, a Grignard-based electrolyte and an ionic liquid based electrolyte; wherein a content of Me ion in the electrolyte is from 0.05 to 2.0 M; and wherein upon completion of the charge to electrodeposit the Mg on the anode current collector, no impedance is present at an anode/electrolyte interface.

8. The rechargeable magnesium battery of claim 7, wherein the electrolyte system comprises one selected from the group consisting of a borohydride-based electrolyte, a Grignard-based electrolyte and an ionic liquid based electrolyte.

9. The rechargeable magnesium battery of claim 7, wherein the electrolyte system comprises a borohydride based electrolyte and the electrolyte salt is Mg monocarborane.

10. The rechargeable magnesium battery of claim 7, wherein the anode current collector comprises one selected from the group consisting of carbon, carbon paper, carbon cloth, a metal, a noble metal mesh and a metal foil.

11. The rechargeable magnesium battery of claim 7, wherein a content of Mg ion in the electrolyte is from 0.05 to 2.0 M.

12. The rechargeable magnesium battery of claim 7, wherein the cathode comprises a nitroxyl radical compound.

13. The rechargeable magnesium battery of claim 7, wherein the cathode comprises 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine 1-oxyl (TEMPO).

14. A method for production of a magnesium battery, comprising: construction of a cell comprising an uncoated current collector anode, an electrolyte chamber having an inlet and outlet for addition and removal of electrolyte solution; a cathode; and an electrolyte system comprising a non-aqueous solvent and a magnesium salt soluble in the non-aqueous solvent in the electrolyte chamber; charging the cell to electrodeposit magnesium metal unto the uncoated current collector to form an anode having magnesium metal as the active material and obtain a secondary magnesium battery comprising the formed anode, the cathode and the electrolyte system.

15. The method of claim 14, further comprising after the cell charging, removal of the electrolyte solution with a depleted Mg ion content from the charged cell and replacement of the electrolyte solution with an electrolyte solution having a Mg ion content of from 0.05 to 2.0 M.

16. A rechargeable magnesium battery obtained by the method of claim 14, comprising: an anode current collector of a material selected from the group consisting of carbon, carbon paper, carbon cloth, a metal, a noble metal mesh and a metal foil; an electrolyte chamber having an inlet and outlet for addition and removal of electrolyte solution; an electrolyte system selected from the group consisting of a borohydride-based electrolyte, a Grignard-based electrolyte and an ionic liquid based electrolyte; wherein a content of Mg ion in the electrolyte is from 0.05 to 2.0 M; and wherein upon completion of the charge to electrodeposit the Mg on the anode current collector, no impedance is present at an anode/electrolyte interface.

17. The rechargeable magnesium battery of claim 16, wherein the electrolyte system comprises one selected from the group consisting of a borohydride-based electrolyte, a Grignard-based electrolyte and an ionic liquid based electrolyte.

18. The rechargeable magnesium battery of claim 16, wherein the electrolyte system comprises a borohydride based electrolyte and the electrolyte salt is Mg monocarborane.

19. The rechargeable magnesium battery of claim 16, wherein the anode current collector comprises one selected from the group consisting of carbon, carbon paper, carbon cloth, a metal, a noble metal mesh and a metal foil.

20. The rechargeable magnesium battery of claim 16, wherein a content of Mg ion in the electrolyte of the constructed cell prior to charging is from 0.05 to 2.0 M.

21. The rechargeable magnesium battery of claim 16, wherein the cathode comprises a nitroxyl radical compound.

22. The rechargeable magnesium battery of claim 16, wherein the cathode comprises 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine 1-oxyl (TEMPO).

23. The rechargeable magnesium battery of claim 16, wherein the inlet and outlet are connected in a flow-through system to an electrolyte reservoir.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) FIG. 1 shows a schematic diagram of a magnesium battery according to one embodiment of the present invention.

(2) FIG. 2 shows initial charge-discharge voltage and current profiles of the Mg battery with no Mg metal anode as a function of time wherein the electrolyte is PP13TFSI with 0.10 mol/kg Mg(TFSI).sub.2.

(3) FIG. 3 shows Nyquist plots of the Mg battery with no Mg metal anode before testing, after initial charging and subsequent discharging wherein the electrolyte is PP13TFSI with 0.10 mol/kg Mg(TFSI)2.

(4) FIG. 4 shows initial charge-discharge voltage and current profiles as a function of time of a Mg battery conventionally constructed with Mg metal anode wherein the electrolyte is PP13TFSI with 0.10 mol/kg Mg(TFSI).sub.2.

(5) FIG. 5 shows Nyquist plots of a conventional Mg battery with Mg metal anode before testing, after initial charging and subsequent discharging wherein the electrolyte is PP13TFSI with 0.10 mol/kg Mg(TFSI).sub.2.

(6) FIG. 6 shows 1.sup.st, 3.sup.rd and 5.sup.th charge-discharge voltage profiles as a function of time of a Mg battery according to one embodiment of the present invention. The electrolyte is 0.75M Mg monocarborane in TG.

(7) FIG. 7 shows Nyquist plots of a Mg battery according to one embodiment of the present invention before testing, after initial charging and subsequent discharging. The electrolyte is 0.75M Mg carborane in TG.

(8) FIG. 8A shows 1.sup.st, 3.sup.rd and 5.sup.th charge-discharge voltage profiles of a Mg battery according to one embodiment of the present invention as a function of time. The electrolyte is 0.2M PhMgCl—AlCl.sub.3 in THF.

(9) FIG. 8B shows 1.sup.st, 3.sup.rd and 5.sup.th charge-discharge voltage profiles of a Mg battery according to one embodiment of the present invention as a function of time. The electrolyte is 0.2M PhMgCl—AlCl.sub.3 in THF.

(10) FIG. 9 shows Nyquist plots of a Mg battery according to one embodiment of the present invention before testing, after initial charging and initial discharging. The electrolyte is 0.2M PhMgCl—AlCl.sub.3 in THF.

(11) FIG. 10 shows initial charge voltage and current profiles of a Mg battery according to one embodiment of the present invention as a function of time. The electrolyte is 0.5 mol/kg Mg(TFSI).sub.2 in ACN.

(12) FIG. 11 shows Nyquist plots of a Mg battery according to one embodiment of the present invention before testing. The electrolyte is 0.5 mol/kg Mg(TFSI).sub.2 in ACN.

(13) FIG. 12 shows the first three formation cycles of a Mg battery according to one embodiment of the present invention as a function of time. The electrolyte is 0.75M Mg monocarborane in TG.

(14) FIG. 13 shows Nyquist plots of a Mg battery according to one embodiment of the present invention before testing, after initial charging and subsequent discharging. The electrolyte is 0.75M Mg monocarborane in TG.

(15) FIG. 14 shows the first two charge-discharge voltage profiles of a Mg battery according to one embodiment of the present invention as a function of time. This test was done after the first three formation cycles shown in FIG. 12. The electrolyte is 0.75M Mg monocarborane in TG.

(16) FIG. 15 shows Nyquist plots of a Mg battery according to one embodiment of the present invention before testing, after initial charging and subsequent discharging. The electrolyte is 0.75M Mg monocarborane in TG.

(17) FIG. 16 shows the capacity retention of the discharge capacity of a Mg battery according to one embodiment of the present invention as a function of cycle number. The electrolyte is 0.75M Mg monocarborane in TG. This test was done after the first three formation cycles shown in FIG. 12.

(18) FIG. 17 shows a Mg battery according to one embodiment of the present invention with inlet/outlet ports in the electrolyte compartment.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

(19) Throughout this description all ranges described include all values and sub-ranges therein, unless otherwise specified. Additionally, the indefinite article “a” or “an” carries the meaning of “one or more” throughout the description, unless otherwise specified. The phrases “selected from the group consisting of,” “chosen from,” and the like include mixtures of the specified materials. Terms such as “contain(s)” and the like are open terms meaning ‘including at least’ unless otherwise specifically noted.

(20) The terms “electrochemical cell” and “battery” may be employed interchangeably unless the context of the description clearly distinguishes an electrochemical cell from a battery.

(21) The present inventors are conducting a wide scale study and evaluation of materials and methods suitable for the production of a magnesium battery having high capacity and high working potential which may ultimately serve as a power source for an electric vehicle.

(22) As described above, an ongoing problem associated with the construction of a magnesium electrochemical cell is the formation of passivating films on the magnesium anode surface which impedes the transfer of magnesium ions and leads to high impedance and poor performance of the cell.

(23) The inventors have observed the high impedance just after assembling an entire cell comprising Mg metal anode, electrolyte and cathode, and although not wishing to be limited by theory, believe the problem is associated with interfacial impedance between Mg metal anode and the electrolyte due to passivating film formation by chemical reduction of the electrolyte by the magnesium metal. Therefore, in ongoing studies to address this problem the inventors have discovered that when Mg metal is not present in the system upon initial construction and instead, is first generated from an electrolyte containing a high concentration of magnesium ion via deposition of magnesium metal onto a current collector substrate during an initial charging operation, a magnesium battery having low interfacial impedance is obtained.

(24) Advantageous to the method, there is much less anode/electrolyte interface, in comparison to the structure wherein the magnesium anode is directly provided. The inventors have discovered that such in-situ generated Mg metal anode has extremely low impedance, resulting in a battery having significantly improved performance. Such reduction in interfacial impedance due to in situ preparation of the magnesium metal anode was unexpected and leads to production of a magnesium battery having advantages over conventionally prepared systems.

(25) Thus, in a first embodiment, the present invention provides a method to prepare a magnesium battery, comprising: construction of a cell comprising an uncoated current collector anode, an electrolyte system comprising a non-aqueous solvent and a magnesium salt soluble in the non-aqueous solvent, and a cathode; and charging the cell to electrodeposit magnesium metal unto the uncoated current collector to obtain an anode having magnesium metal as the active material.

(26) The current collector substrate may be any suitable material conventionally employed and may be steel, carbon or other metal.

(27) Theoretically an electrolyte having a higher oxidation potential than the cathode redox potential and also having high solvency for magnesium salts may be employed. Thus, Mg may be efficiently electrodeposited upon initial charge and due to high solvency a sufficient content of Mg can be formed on the current collector. Suitable electrolyte systems include Grignard-based electrolytes, for example, PhMgCl—AlCl.sub.3/tetrahydrofuran (THF), borohydride-based electrolytes, for example, Mg monocarborane (Mg(CB.sub.11H.sub.12).sub.2/tetraglyme (TG) and ionic liquid-based electrolytes, for example, N-methyl-N-propylpiperidinium bis(trifluoromethansulfonyl)imide (PP13TFSI)/magnesium bis(trifluoromethansulfonyl)imide (Mg(TFSI).sub.2). Compatible mixtures of these electrolytes may also be used.

(28) The content of Mg ion available in the electrolyte may be from 0.05 M to 2.0 M, preferably from 0.1 to 1.5 M and most preferably from 0.25 to 1.0 M, although the content of Mg necessary to construct and maintain a battery will depend upon the actual electrolyte system employed and whether the rechargeable battery is closed or has capability for electrolyte exchange or flow-through.

(29) In one preferred embodiment the electrolyte contains a room temperature ionic liquid (RTIL). The ionic liquids suitable may comprise any of cations such as imidazolium cation, piperidinium cation, pyrrolidinium cation, pyridinum cation, ammonium cation and phosphonium cation and any of anions such as bis(trifluoromethansulfonyl)imide anion, bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide anion, tetrafluoroborate anion, hexafluorophosphate anion, dicyanamide anion and a halogen anion (chloride, bromide or iodide). In preferred embodiments the ionic liquid may be N-methyl-N-propylpiperidinium bis(trifluoromethansulfonyl)imide (PP13TFSI) or N,N-Diethyl-N-Methyl-N-(2-methoxyethyl)ammonium bis(trifluoromethansulfonyl)imide (DEMETFSI).

(30) Suitable electrolyte systems in accordance with the present invention include borohydride-based electrolytes (FIG. 6/7), Grignard-based electrolytes (FIG. 8/9) and ionic liquid based electrolyte (FIG. 2/3). However, conventional organic solvents coupled with Mg(TFSI).sub.2 are not suitable because such electrolytes passivate the surface of Mg metal and hinder the Mg deposition itself. A key parameter is a capability of the electrolyte's compatibility with Mg metal. Since the Mg metal is generated in-situ and Mg metal is deposited at the anode surface during the charge cycle, compatibility of the electrolyte system with magnesium surface is necessary for successful Mg deposition. Irreversible capacity, low voltage plateau (ca. 1.2V) and relatively high voltage plateau (ca. 3.0V) strongly depend on the kinds of electrolytes. Overall, the borohydride-based electrolytes may be preferred for this invention.

(31) With suitably selected electrolyte systems as according to the present invention high interfacial impedance is successfully hindered and the in situ-formed Mg battery provides significantly and unexpectedly improved performance over conventional magnesium batteries.

(32) A cathode active material which allows for the electrodeposition of magnesium and preferably does not rely on redox capability of a transition metal is preferred. Nitroxyl radical compounds may be employed as a cathode active material. The inventors have discovered that organic compounds such as 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine 1-oxyl (TEMPO) and optionally substituted derivatives thereof are particularly suitable cathode materials. In one embodiment the cathode may contain TEMPO as an active material. In another embodiment the active material may be 4-methoxy-TEMPO. Mixtures of compatible active materials may also be employed as a cathode active agent.

(33) Other components that may be contained in the cathode include a carbonaceous material such as Ketjen black, acetylene black, vapor grown carbon fiber, graphene, natural graphite, artificial graphite and activated carbon. Other suitable conductive materials may be conductive fibers, such as a metal fiber, metal powder, such as nickel and aluminum, and organic conductive materials, such as a polyphenylene derivative. In some embodiments mixtures of these materials may be employed. Other suitable conductive materials may be conductive ceramics such as titanium nitride and titanium carbide.

(34) Suitable binders for the cathode known to one of ordinary skill which are chemically stable in the potential window of use of the cell may include thermoplastics and thermosetting resins. For example, polyethylene, polypropylene, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), styrene butadiene rubber, a tetrafluoroethylene hexafluoro ethylenic copolymer, a tetrafluoroethylene hexafluoropropylene copolymer (FEP), a tetrafluoroethylene perfluoroalkyl vinyl ether copolymer (PFA), ethylene-tetrafluoroethylene copolymer (ETFE resin), polychlorotrifluoroethylene resin (PCTFE), a propylene-tetrafluoroethylene copolymer, an ethylene-chlorotrifluoroethylene copolymer (ECTFE) and an ethylene-acrylic acid copolymer. These binders may be used independently, or mixtures may be used.

(35) Therefore, in another embodiment, the present invention provides a magnesium battery comprising: a negative electrode comprising a current collector having an electrodeposited coating of magnesium metal; a cathode; and an electrolyte system comprising a non-aqueous solvent and a magnesium salt soluble in the non-aqueous solvent; wherein prior to a first charge, the negative electrode current collector is devoid of magnesium metal.

(36) As indicated above, in order to prepare an anode with sufficient amount of magnesium metal a highly concentrated electrolyte solution containing Mg ion as an anode metal source is installed in the battery and the system charged thus electrodepositing Mg metal. This process may lead to depletion of the Mg ion content of the electrolyte and thus consumption of the electrolyte. Apart from the solubility of TEMPO itself, such consumption may lead to low coulombic efficiency of the system. According to the concept of the invention, the electrolyte becomes an active material fluctuating between Mg metal on the anode and electrolyte ion.

(37) Therefore, in further embodiments of the invention, the battery may include facility for replacement or rejuvenation of the electrolyte either via a continuous flow system contained with the battery or by provision of a battery structure that readily allows for facile regular exchange of electrolyte. FIG. 17 shows a schematic structure of a battery having a flow structure that provides a mechanism for exchange and rejuvenation of the electrolyte.

(38) In a further embodiment, a new flow type structure where electrolyte itself is supplied like a fuel may be included in the structure of the system.

(39) In a highly advantageous aspect of this invention, since the magnesium metal of the anode is built from the magnesium ion content of the electrolyte, complete discharge of the battery means substantially complete Mg removal from current collector of the anode. Therefore, uncontrolled self-discharge is limited and the safety aspect of the battery is significantly increased.

(40) Thus, in a further embodiment, the present invention provides a magnesium battery comprising: a negative electrode comprising a current collector and an electrodeposited coating of magnesium metal; a cathode; an electrolyte chamber having an inlet and outlet for addition and removal of electrolyte solution; an electrolyte system comprising a non-aqueous solvent and a magnesium salt soluble in the non-aqueous solvent; wherein prior to a first charge, the negative electrode current collector is devoid of magnesium metal.

(41) The electrolyte layer is disposed between the anode and cathode and may include a separator which helps maintain electrical isolation between the positive and negative electrodes. A separator may include fibers, particles, web, porous sheet, or other form of material configured to reduce the risk of physical contact and/or short circuit between the electrodes. The separator may be a unitary element, or may include a plurality of discrete spacer elements such as particles or fibers. The electrolyte layer may include a separator infused with an electrolyte solution. In some examples, for example using a polymer electrolyte, the separator may be omitted.

(42) Magnesium ions in the electrolyte may be present as a salt or complex of magnesium, or as any appropriate form that is suitable as described above.

(43) An electrolyte may include other compounds, for example additives to enhance ionic conductivity, and may in some examples include acidic or basic compounds as additives. An electrolyte may be a liquid, gel, or solid. An electrolyte may be a polymer electrolyte, for example including a plasticized polymer, and may have a polymer infused with or otherwise including magnesium ions. The cathode active material may be present as a sheet, ribbon, particles, or other physical form. An electrode containing the cathode active material may be supported by a current collector.

(44) The current collector may include a metal or other electrically conducting sheet on which the electrode is supported. The current collector may be formed of carbon, carbon paper, carbon cloth or a metal or noble metal mesh or foil. Preferred current collectors may be any of carbon, stainless steel, nickel, aluminum and copper. In certain embodiments the current collector may comprise a protective coating of an oxidation-resistant metal or alloy to protect the collector from oxidation.

(45) FIG. 1 shows an example of one configuration of a rechargeable magnesium cell 5. The cell 5 includes a positive electrode 10 comprising a cathode active material, an electrolyte layer 12, a negative electrode 14, a cathode current collector 16, a negative electrode housing 18, a positive electrode housing 20 including an inert layer 21, and a sealing gasket 22. The electrolyte layer 16 may include a separator soaked in electrolyte solution, and the positive electrode 10 may be supported by the cathode current collector 16. In this example, the negative electrode 14 includes an active material of magnesium metal.

(46) Having generally described this invention, a further understanding can be obtained by reference to certain specific examples which are provided herein for purposes of illustration only and are not intended to be limiting unless otherwise specified.

EXAMPLES

(47) Battery Set Up

(48) A series of batteries as represented in FIG. 1 were prepared using the following materials:

(49) Cathode current collector: Glassy carbon dish

(50) Cathode: 4MeO-TEMPO:KB:PTFE (4:5:1) (wt %) self-standing sheet

(51) Electrolyte: described individually below, with glass microfiber filter separator

(52) Anode: either none or Mg metal as described below

(53) Anode current collector: carbon paper and stainless steel plate

(54) Operation cycle: Charge (0.1 mA/cm.sup.2 up to 3.2V).fwdarw.Rest (10 min @ OCV)

(55) Discharge (0.1 mA/cm.sup.2 down to 0.5V).fwdarw.Rest (10 min @ OCV)

(56) Test Battery 1 (prepared according to the invention)

(57) Electrolyte: PP13TFSI with 0.10 mol/kg Mg(TFSI).sub.2.

(58) FIG. 2 shows the Initial charge-discharge voltage and current profiles obtained with Test Battery 1 as a function of time.

(59) FIG. 3 shows Nyquist plots of Test battery 1 before testing, after initial charging and subsequent discharging.

(60) Test Battery 2 (conventional Mg electrode)

(61) Electrolyte: PP13TFSI with 0.10 mol/kg Mg(TFSI).sub.2.

(62) FIG. 4 shows the Initial charge-discharge voltage and current profiles of Test Battery 2 as a function of time.

(63) FIG. 5 shows Nyquist plots of the Test battery 2 before testing, after initial charging and subsequent discharging.

(64) When the Mg metal anode was installed in the construction of the battery according to conventional method, high interfacial impedance was clearly observed before testing as shown in FIG. 5. As a result, IN FIG. 4, it was difficult to charge and discharge the Test battery 2. In comparison in Test battery 1 the Mg anode was formed in situ during charging. The impedance before testing looked like a spike, indicating that no impedance component at the anode/electrolyte interface existed. During charging, the impedance was drastically decreased, while it went back during discharging. This is evidence that the Mg deposition and removal was successfully done. Also the working voltage shown in FIG. 2 was consistent with the TEMPO redox reaction against Mg (theoretically 2.7V vs. Mg). It was, therefore, determined that in-situ generated Mg metal preparation and its self-formation of Mg battery functioned very well.

(65) Test Battery 3 (prepared according to the invention)

(66) Electrolyte: 0.75M Mg carborane in TG.

(67) FIG. 6 shows the 1.sup.st, 3.sup.rd and 5.sup.th charge-discharge voltage profiles of Test battery 3 obtained as a function of time.

(68) FIG. 7 shows Nyquist plots of the Test battery 3 before testing, after initial charging and initial discharging.

(69) Test Battery 4 (prepared according to the invention)

(70) Electrolyte: 0.2M PhMgCl—AlCl3 in THF.

(71) FIG. 8A shows the 1.sup.st, 3.sup.rd and 5.sup.th charge-discharge voltage profiles of Test battery 4 as a function of time.

(72) FIG. 8B shows the 1.sup.st, 3.sup.rd and 5.sup.th charge-discharge voltage profiles of Test battery 4 as a function of time.

(73) FIG. 9 shows Nyquist plots of Test battery 4 before testing, after initial charging and subsequent discharging.

(74) Test Battery 5 (prepared according to the invention)

(75) Electrolyte: 0.5 mol/kg Mg(TFSI).sub.2 in ACN

(76) FIG. 10 shows the initial charge voltage and current profiles of Test Battery 5 as a function of time.

(77) FIG. 11 shows Nyquist plots of Test Battery 5 before testing.

(78) As indicated by Test batteries 1, 3, 4 and 5 the present invention can be applied in a variety of electrolyte systems. For example, Borohydride-based electrolyte (FIG. 6/7), Grignard-based electrolyte (FIG. 8/9) and Ionic liquid based electrolyte (FIG. 2/3). However, conventional organic solvents coupled with Mg(TFSI).sub.2 were not successful. The inventors believe that this kind of electrolyte passivates the surface of Mg metal, hindering the Mg deposition itself. A key parameter is a capability of the electrolyte's compatibility with Mg metal. Mg metal is not necessary in advance, but during in-situ generation, Mg was certainly deposited at the anode surface. At that time, the compatibility was a very sensitive parameter to determine the successful Mg deposition. Obtaining irreversible capacity, low voltage plateau (ca. 1.2V) and relatively high voltage plateau (ca. 3.0V) depended on the electrolyte composition employed. Overall, the borohydride-based electrolytes appeared to be preferable for performance according to the present invention.

(79) Test Battery 6 (prepared according to the invention)

(80) Electrolyte: 0.75M Mg monocarborane in TG

(81) FIG. 12 shows the first three formation cycles of Test Battery 6 as a function of time.

(82) FIG. 13 shows Nyquist plots of Test Battery 6 before testing, after initial charging and subsequent discharging.

(83) FIG. 14 shows the first two charge-discharge voltage profiles of Test Battery 6 as a function of time. This test was done after the first three formation cycles shown in FIG. 12.

(84) FIG. 15 shows Nyquist plots of Test Battery 6 before testing, after initial charging and subsequent discharging.

(85) FIG. 16 shows the capacity retention of the discharge capacity of Test Battery 6 as a function of cycle number. This test was done after the first three formation cycles shown in FIG. 12.

(86) To eliminate the impact of low voltage plateau and irreversible capacity, the formation cycle prior to the battery cycling was applied three times. As shown in FIGS. 12 and 13, the impedance had a good response to formation and removal Mg metal in the system. After that, the battery was repeatedly cycled over 50 times as shown in FIGS. 14 and 16. FIG. 15 demonstrated that lower impedance was observed during charging, and then during discharging it went back to the original state, indicating that the anode/electrolyte interface could be successfully and repeatedly rebuilt.

(87) Additional advantages and other features of the present invention will become apparent to those having ordinary skill in the art upon examination of the present disclosure or may be learned from the practice of the present invention. The advantages of the present invention may be realized and obtained as particularly pointed out in the appended claims. As will be realized, the present invention is capable of other and different embodiments, and its several details are capable of modifications in various obvious respects, all without departing from the present invention. In this regard, the description herein is to be understood as illustrative in nature, and not as restrictive.